Introduction
The arrival of American colonial rule in the Philippines at the turn of the 20th century ushered in an era of profound transformation that reshaped the archipelago’s political, social, and cultural landscape. Among the most significant and enduring changes was the emergence and subsequent flourishing of a completely new literary tradition: Philippine literature written in the English language. This development was not merely an addition to the existing literary scene, which had been dominated by Spanish and various vernacular languages; it was a major cultural shift that marked the beginning of a distinct and influential literary stream.
Prior to the American period, literature in the Philippines primarily existed in Spanish, serving the educated elite and intellectual class, and in numerous regional languages, reflecting the diverse cultural tapestry of the islands. The imposition of English as the new language of government and, more importantly, of instruction in a rapidly expanding public education system, created an unprecedented environment for a new form of literary expression. This article delves into the historical context, causes, key developments, influential figures, and lasting impact of Philippine literature in English during the American colonial period, roughly spanning from the early 1900s to the eve of World War II in the 1940s. It explores how Filipino writers navigated the complexities of expressing their identity, experiences, and aspirations in a foreign tongue imposed by a new colonizer, and how this unique body of work became a cornerstone of modern Philippine literary history.
Historical Context: The American Occupation
To understand the genesis of Philippine literature in English, it is crucial to grasp the historical backdrop against which it unfolded. The late 19th century saw the culmination of the Philippine Revolution, a nationalist struggle that sought to overthrow Spanish colonial rule. Following centuries of Spanish domination, Filipino revolutionaries, led by figures like Emilio Aguinaldo, declared independence on June 12, 1898. However, this nascent republic was short-lived.
Spain, having been defeated by the United States in the Spanish-American War, ceded the Philippines to the U.S. for $20 million through the Treaty of Paris signed on December 10, 1898. This transfer of sovereignty was vehemently rejected by the Filipinos, who had fought for their own independence, not merely a change of colonial masters. This fundamental disagreement ignited the Philippine-American War (1899-1902, though resistance continued for several years after), a brutal conflict that saw American forces suppress the Filipino independence movement.
Upon establishing control, the American administration implemented a range of policies aimed at pacifying the islands and establishing a new colonial order. Unlike the Spanish approach, which was heavily centered on religious conversion and centralized governance through a small elite, the Americans emphasized infrastructure development, public health improvements, and, most significantly for literature, a widespread public education system. This system, initially staffed by American teachers known as the Thomasites (who arrived in 1901 aboard the USS Thomas), was designed to educate Filipinos in American democratic ideals and the English language. English was quickly established as the medium of instruction across all levels, from elementary schools to universities. This policy was instrumental in creating a generation of Filipinos fluent in English, laying the foundation for a new literary tradition.
The American administration also introduced limited forms of political participation, leading to the establishment of the Philippine Assembly in 1907 and the eventual promise of independence (realized in 1946). This political environment, while still colonial, allowed for a degree of public discourse and expression, much of which began to take place in the newly adopted language.
Causes for the Emergence of Literature in English
The rise of Philippine literature in English Under American Rule was not accidental; it was the direct result of a confluence of political, social, and cultural factors shaped by the American colonial project.
- Political Causes:
- “Benevolent Assimilation”: The U.S. government framed its colonial policy as “benevolent assimilation,” aiming to “uplift, civilize, and Christianize” the Filipinos (despite the Philippines already being Christianized by Spain). This policy involved introducing American institutions and values, with English education being a primary tool for cultural integration and the dissemination of American ideals.
- Public Education System: The establishment of a free and compulsory public education system, unprecedented in scale compared to the Spanish era, was the single most crucial factor. By making English the medium of instruction nationwide, the Americans rapidly created a large pool of English-speaking Filipinos, many of whom would form the first generation of writers in the language.
- Participation in the New Order: As English became the language of government, law, commerce, and higher education, proficiency in English became essential for social and political advancement. Filipinos aspiring to participate in the new colonial administration, the legal system, or the burgeoning modern economy needed to master English. This necessity naturally extended to intellectual and creative expression.
- Social Causes:
- Increased Literacy Rates: The public education system significantly boosted literacy rates across the islands, creating a larger potential audience for written materials.
- Exposure to American Culture: Through schools, textbooks, American teachers, and later, American media (newspapers, magazines, films), Filipinos were exposed to American culture, ideas, and, critically, American and English literature. This provided new models and influences for aspiring writers.
- Rise of a New Educated Class: The American education system produced a new generation of educated Filipinos, distinct from the ilustrados of the Spanish era, whose intellectual formation was primarily in Spanish. This new class, fluent in English, became the primary producers and consumers of early Philippine literature in English Under American Rule.
- Cultural Causes:
- Decline of Spanish: While Spanish remained important for a time, its role as the primary language of intellectual discourse among the elite gradually waned as English gained prominence. This created a linguistic vacuum for a new national intellectual language.
- Lack of a Single National Language: At the time, the Philippines had numerous distinct regional languages (Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, etc.) and no single dominant national language universally understood across the archipelago. English, though foreign, offered a potential lingua franca for educated Filipinos from different regions to communicate and share ideas, including literary ones.
- English as a Language of Modernity: English was perceived by many as the language of modernity, science, technology, and international commerce. Writing in English offered a sense of being connected to global trends and participating in a wider, modern world.
- Expressing Filipino Identity: Despite being a foreign language, English became a vehicle for Filipinos to articulate their unique experiences, identity, and perspectives under the new colonial regime. Writers grappled with themes of cultural identity, the impact of Americanization, nationalism, and the realities of Filipino life, using English to reach both a local and potentially international audience.
These factors combined to create fertile ground for the emergence of a literature that was Filipino in subject matter and sensibility, yet expressed through the linguistic medium of the colonizer.
Key Events and Timeline
The development of Philippine literature in English Under American Rule can be broadly categorized into distinct periods, reflecting the growing proficiency and confidence of Filipino writers in the language:
| Period | Approx. Dates | Characteristics | Key Developments | Notable Genres/Themes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| The Period of Apprenticeship | c. 1900s – 1920s | Learning the language; often imitative of Western models; focus on grammar & form. | Establishment of public schools (Thomasites, 1901); Founding of UP (1908); Early school papers & publications. | Simple verse, essays, news articles; often didactic or romantic. |
| The Period of Emergence/Development | c. 1920s – 1930s | Growing confidence & skill; experimentation with themes; emergence of distinct voices. | Establishment of major literary journals (e.g., Philippine Magazine, Literary Apprentice); First significant collections published. | Short story gains prominence; essays on social/cultural issues; poetry exploring Filipino life. |
| The Period of Maturity/Flowering | c. 1930s – 1940s | Mastery of English; expression of distinct Filipino sensibilities; critical analysis. | Publication of landmark works; international recognition for some writers; influence of Western literary movements blended with local themes. | Sophisticated short stories & essays; development of the novel; varied poetic styles; themes of identity, nationalism, social realism. |
Let’s elaborate on these periods:
- Early Period (c. 1900s – 1920s): The Period of Apprenticeship This was the foundational stage. The primary focus was on mastering the English language itself. Early writers were often students or teachers in the new American education system. Their works were understandably tentative, often heavily influenced by the English and American literary models they encountered in school – Romantic poets like Wordsworth and Longfellow, Victorian writers, and early American authors. Writing often appeared in school newspapers, college publications (like The Varsity News at UP, later the Philippine Collegian), and early periodicals aimed at the educated class. The content was frequently imitative, sentimental, or focused on simple descriptions of nature or didactic lessons. Justo Juliano’s poem “Sursum Corda” (1907) is often cited as one of the earliest published poems in English by a Filipino. Fernando Maramag was another key figure from this era, known for his lyrical poetry.
- Middle Period (c. 1920s – 1930s): The Period of Emergence/Development As more Filipinos became proficient in English, confidence grew, and the quality of writing improved significantly. This period saw the establishment of important literary venues that provided platforms for writers and fostered critical discourse. Philippine Magazine, edited by A.V.H. Hartendorp, became a crucial outlet for essays and short stories. The Literary Apprentice, the publication of the UP Writers’ Club (founded in 1927), became a training ground and showcase for emerging talents. Writers began to move beyond mere imitation, experimenting with form and increasingly focusing on Filipino themes and subjects – rural life, urban experiences, social issues, and the clash of cultures under American rule. The short story started to gain prominence as a popular and effective form.
- Later Period (c. 1930s – 1940s): The Period of Maturity/Flowering By the 1930s, Filipino writers in English had largely mastered the language and were producing works of considerable skill and depth. This era saw the publication of landmark collections that solidified the place of English literature in the Philippines. Writers like Jose Garcia Villa, Salvador P. Lopez, Manuel Arguilla, and N.V.M. Gonzalez produced works that explored complex themes with sophisticated technique. Villa, in particular, gained international recognition for his avant-garde poetry. The influence of Western literary movements like Realism, Naturalism, and later, Modernism, became more apparent, but writers were adept at adapting these styles to express unique Filipino sensibilities and realities. Literary criticism also developed, with figures like Salvador P. Lopez and Leopoldo Yabes analyzing and debating the nature and direction of this new literature. This period represented the peak of achievement for the first generation of Filipino writers in English before the disruption of World War II.
Key Figures
The development of Philippine literature in English Under American Rule was propelled by the talent and dedication of numerous writers. These figures not only honed their craft in a new language but also used it to capture the changing Filipino experience.
Here are some of the most influential figures from this era:
| Writer | Primary Genres | Key Contributions/Known For | Period |
|---|---|---|---|
| Justo Juliano | Poetry | Author of “Sursum Corda,” often considered the first poem in English by a Filipino. | Apprenticeship (Pioneer) |
| Fernando Maramag | Poetry, Essay | Early lyrical poet, editor; known for patriotic and nature themes. | Apprenticeship (Pioneer) |
| Juan F. Salazar | Essay, Poetry | Early essayist and poet; known for reflective pieces. | Apprenticeship (Pioneer) |
| Jose Garcia Villa | Poetry, Short Story | Internationally acclaimed poet; known for experimental forms (“comma poems”), unique style. | Emergence/Maturity (Major Figure) |
| Salvador P. Lopez | Essay, Criticism | Prominent essayist and literary critic; advocated for socially relevant literature. | Emergence/Maturity (Major Figure) |
| Manuel Arguilla | Short Story | Master of the short story; known for realistic depictions of rural life in Ilocos. | Maturity (Major Figure) |
| N.V.M. Gonzalez | Novel, Short Story | Later National Artist; explored themes of Filipino identity, rural life, and exile. | Emergence/Maturity (Major Figure) |
| Carlos P. Romulo | Essay, Journalism | Later diplomat and statesman; early writer and editor. | Emergence/Maturity (Major Figure) |
| Angela Manalang Gloria | Poetry | Important female poet; known for lyrical and sometimes daring explorations of love and life. | Maturity (Major Figure) |
| Leopoldo Yabes | Criticism, Scholarship | Influential literary critic and historian; documented the development of Philippine literature in English. | Emergence/Maturity (Critic/Scholar) |
| Francisco Arcellana | Short Story | Later National Artist; known for lyrical and experimental short stories. | Maturity (Major Figure) |
| Loreto Paras Sulit | Short Story | Known for short stories often focusing on themes of love, family, and tradition. | Maturity (Major Figure) |
These writers, and many others, contributed significantly to shaping the themes, styles, and concerns of Philippine literature in English Under American Rule. They grappled with the challenge of writing authentically about Filipino life and identity in a language that was not their mother tongue, paving the way for future generations.
Course of Events: Development of Literary Forms
The different literary genres developed at varying paces and with distinct characteristics during the American period.
- Poetry: Poetry was one of the earliest forms attempted by Filipinos writing in English. Initially, it was heavily imitative, following the metrical patterns, rhyme schemes, and sentimental themes of 19th-century English and American verse (Romantic, Victorian styles). Early poems often celebrated nature, love, or patriotism in a formal, often archaic, language. As writers gained confidence and exposure to more modern trends, Filipino poetry in English began to evolve. The 1930s saw greater experimentation with form and language, notably in the work of Jose Garcia Villa, who pushed the boundaries of poetic expression with his unique syntax and punctuation. Themes expanded to include urban life, social commentary, and more complex personal reflections. While never reaching the same level of mass popularity as the short story, English poetry cultivated a dedicated readership among the educated elite and served as an important avenue for linguistic and artistic experimentation.
- Short Story: The short story quickly became the dominant literary form during the American period, particularly from the 1920s onwards. Several factors contributed to this: the influence of American short story writers (like O. Henry, Edgar Allan Poe, and later, modernists); the format’s suitability for magazines and journals, which were the primary outlets for new writing; and its adaptability to capturing vignettes of Filipino life and experiences. Early short stories were sometimes didactic or romantic, but the form rapidly matured. Writers like Manuel Arguilla brought a strong sense of realism, depicting rural life, customs, and the struggles of ordinary Filipinos with vivid detail and authentic dialogue (often rendered in English with Filipino inflections). N.V.M. Gonzalez explored themes of identity and the challenges of life in the islands. Francisco Arcellana experimented with narrative technique and psychological depth. The short story proved to be a powerful tool for documenting the social transformations occurring under American rule and exploring the nuances of Filipino identity in a changing world.
- Essay: The essay was crucial for intellectual discourse, literary criticism, and social commentary. From the outset, essays appeared in newspapers and magazines, discussing topics ranging from education and politics to culture and literature. Figures like Salvador P. Lopez used the essay form to engage in critical debates about the role of literature in society, advocating for writing that was socially conscious and relevant. Leopoldo Yabes contributed significantly through his scholarly essays on Philippine literary history. The essay provided a platform for Filipino intellectuals to articulate their perspectives on the challenges and opportunities presented by American rule and to analyze the emerging body of literature in English. It served as a bridge between creative writing and critical thought.
- Novel: The novel was the slowest genre to develop in Philippine literature in English Under American Rule. Writing a full-length novel requires sustained effort, a larger readership, and established publishing channels, all of which were still developing. While attempts were made, few novels of lasting significance were produced compared to the output in poetry and short stories during this period. Early novels often grappled with social themes or historical narratives but faced challenges in structure and style compared to the more mature short fiction. The novel would gain greater prominence in the post-war era, building on the foundations laid during the American period.
Overall, the American period saw the rapid evolution of literary forms, with the short story emerging as the most vibrant and accomplished genre, while poetry underwent significant experimentation, and the essay served as the backbone of intellectual and critical life.
Consequences and Effects
The emergence of Philippine literature in English Under American Rule had far-reaching consequences, both positive and negative, shaping the trajectory of Philippine culture and literature.
- Positive Consequences:
- Creation of a New Literary Body: The most obvious positive effect was the creation of a completely new, vibrant body of literature that captured the experiences of Filipinos during a critical period of their history.
- Common Linguistic Medium: English provided a common language for writers from different linguistic regions of the Philippines, allowing for a greater sense of national literary community and exchange of ideas among the educated class.
- Connection to International Trends: Writing in English connected Filipino writers to international literary trends and potentially wider audiences, allowing their voices and stories to reach beyond the archipelago. Jose Garcia Villa is a prime example of a writer who achieved international recognition.
- Documentation of Filipino Life: This literature offered new perspectives and detailed documentation of Filipino life, customs, and the social changes brought about by modernization and American influence.
- Contribution to National Identity: While complex and debated, writing in English contributed to the ongoing formation of a national identity, providing a shared cultural reference point for the educated elite, even if the language itself was foreign.
- Negative Consequences:
- Alienation from the Masses: The most significant negative impact was the potential alienation of this literature from the majority of the Filipino population who did not speak or read English. This created a linguistic and cultural divide between the educated elite writing in English and the broader populace.
- Marginalization of Vernacular Literature: The prominence and prestige accorded to literature in English, supported by the educational system and publishing industry, arguably led to the relative neglect or marginalization of literature being produced simultaneously in various vernacular languages.
- Influence of Western Models: While providing new tools, the strong influence of Western literary models sometimes overshadowed or displaced indigenous literary forms and sensibilities. Critics argued that some works felt more American or English than authentically Filipino.
- Debate over Authenticity: The very act of writing Filipino experiences in a foreign language raised questions about authenticity, identity, and cultural integrity. Was it truly Filipino literature if written in the colonizer’s tongue?
The legacy of this period is thus complex, marked by both significant achievements and inherent contradictions stemming from its colonial origins.
Significance
The emergence of Philippine literature in English Under American Rule holds immense significance in the broader context of Philippine history and culture.
- Pivotal Moment: It represents a pivotal moment in Philippine literary history, introducing a new linguistic medium that would coexist and interact with Spanish and vernacular literatures. It expanded the possibilities for Filipino writers and broadened the scope of literary expression.
- Reflects Colonial Impact: This body of work is a powerful reflection of the complex cultural impact of American colonialism. It shows how Filipinos adapted, resisted, and negotiated their identity under a new foreign power, using the tools provided by the colonizer (the language and the educational system) for their own expressive purposes.
- Foundation for Contemporary Literature: The writers and works of this period laid the groundwork for contemporary Philippine literature in English. They established themes, styles, and a tradition that later generations of writers would build upon, challenge, and transform. Many of the prominent writers of the post-war era were educated and began their careers during the later part of the American period.
- Platform for Intellectuals: English provided a platform for Filipino intellectuals and artists to engage with modern ideas, participate in global literary trends, and articulate their national aspirations to both a domestic elite and an international audience.
This era demonstrates the dynamic nature of cultural adaptation and the complex ways in which colonial encounters shape artistic production.
Different Perspectives and Controversies
The rise of Philippine literature in English Under American Rule was not without its controversies and has been subject to different interpretations over time.
- The “Language Question”: Perhaps the most enduring debate centers on the “Language Question.” Critics argued that promoting English as the language of literature and education was detrimental to the development of a truly national language based on a local vernacular (which would eventually be Tagalog, leading to Filipino). They contended that writing in English alienated writers from the majority of the population and perpetuated a colonial mentality.
- Elite vs. Masses: Literature in English was often criticized for being the literature of the educated elite, detached from the everyday realities and linguistic experiences of the masses. This raised questions about its representativeness and its ability to truly reflect the national soul.
- Westernization vs. Authenticity: Some critics felt that the strong influence of Western literary models led to works that were imitative or lacked authentic Filipino character. The challenge for writers was often seen as how to be both modern (using English and Western forms) and authentically Filipino in sensibility.
- Assimilation, Resistance, or Adaptation?: There are varying perspectives on whether writing in English was primarily an act of assimilation into American culture, a form of subtle resistance (using the colonizer’s language against them), or simply a pragmatic adaptation to the new linguistic reality imposed by colonialism. Many writers navigated this complex space, using English to critique colonial society or assert Filipino identity.
These debates highlight the complex socio-political context surrounding the development of this literature and continue to inform discussions about language, identity, and nationalism in the Philippines.
Conclusion Summary
The emergence of Philippine literature in English Under American Rule was a direct and significant consequence of American colonial policies, most notably the establishment of a widespread public education system using English as the medium of instruction. This policy, coupled with social and cultural shifts, rapidly created a generation of English-speaking Filipinos who would become the pioneers and developers of a new literary tradition.
Developing through distinct periods of apprenticeship, emergence, and maturity, this literature saw Filipino writers gain increasing mastery of the English language while simultaneously exploring and expressing unique Filipino themes, experiences, and identities. Key figures across genres like poetry, the short story (which became particularly dominant), and the essay contributed to a growing body of work that reflected the complexities of life under American rule.
The impact of this development was dual-edged. On one hand, it created a vibrant new literary stream, provided a common language for educated Filipinos, connected Filipino writers to international literary trends, and documented a crucial period of national history. On the other hand, it raised questions about accessibility, potentially marginalized vernacular literatures, and sparked ongoing debates about language, identity, and the influence of Western culture.
Despite these complexities and controversies, Philippine literature in English Under American Rule represents a pivotal moment in the nation’s cultural history. It laid the essential groundwork for the continued growth of English-language literature in the Philippines and remains a vital part of the country’s rich and multifaceted literary landscape, demonstrating the resilience and adaptability of Filipino creative expression even under colonial conditions.
Key Takeaways:
- Philippine literature in English emerged directly from the American colonial education system.
- English became the language of instruction, creating a new generation of readers and writers.
- The period evolved from early imitation (Apprenticeship) to confident expression of Filipino themes (Emergence & Maturity).
- The short story was the most prominent genre, while poetry and essays also flourished.
- Key figures like Jose Garcia Villa, Manuel Arguilla, and Salvador P. Lopez shaped the tradition.
- The emergence had positive effects (new literature, national communication among elite, global connection) and negative effects (alienation from masses, potential marginalization of vernaculars).
- Debates over language, identity, and authenticity were central controversies.
- This period is foundational to contemporary Philippine literature in English.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):
- When did Philippine literature in English first emerge? It began in the early 1900s, shortly after the establishment of American colonial rule and the introduction of English education.
- Who were some of the earliest Filipino writers in English? Early pioneers included Justo Juliano, Fernando Maramag, and Juan F. Salazar.
- Why did Filipinos start writing in English instead of Spanish or their local languages? English was introduced as the language of education and government, creating a generation fluent in it. It also offered a potential lingua franca and connection to global literary trends, while Spanish was declining and no single vernacular was dominant nationwide among the educated class.
- What was the most popular literary genre during this period? The short story became the most dominant and developed genre.
- Did writing in English replace literature in other languages? No, literature in Spanish and various vernacular languages continued to be produced, although literature in English gained significant prestige and institutional support.
- What were some of the main themes explored by writers in English? Themes included Filipino identity, rural and urban life, social issues, the impact of Americanization, nationalism, love, and nature.
- Was there any controversy surrounding literature in English? Yes, particularly regarding the “Language Question” – whether writing in a foreign language truly represented the Filipino soul and if it alienated the masses who didn’t speak English.
Sources:
- Lumbera, Bienvenido L., and Cynthia Nograles Lumbera. Philippine Literature: A History and Anthology. Anvil Publishing, Inc., 2005.
- Mojares, Resil B. Origins and Rise of the Filipino Novel: A Generic Study of the Novel Until 1940. University of the Philippines Press, 1983.
- San Juan, E. Jr. Philippine Temptation: Dialectics of Philippine-U.S. Literary Relations. Temple University Press, 1996.
- Abad, Gémino H. A History of English or American and Philippine Colonial and Postcolonial Literature. University of the Philippines Press, 2011.
- Bresnahan, Roger J. Anglophone Philippine Literature. 1990. (Various essays and analyses)
- Historical archives and literary journals from the American colonial period (e.g., Philippine Magazine, Literary Apprentice).