The Philippine Commission: Legislating American Control in the Early Colonial Philippines

Introduction

The dawn of the 20th century brought a seismic shift to the Philippine archipelago. Following centuries under Spanish dominion, the islands found themselves under the nascent control of the United States of America after the Spanish-American War. This transition was not seamless; it was marked by conflict, resistance, and the challenging task of establishing a new form of governance. At the heart of this early American colonial administration stood a pivotal body: the Philippine Commission.

This article delves into the critical role of the Philippine Commission as the primary legislative and, initially, executive authority during the formative years of American rule. Understanding the Philippine Commission and the laws it enacted is essential to grasping how the United States consolidated its power, shaped the political landscape, and laid the groundwork for many of the institutions that define modern-day Philippines. It was through the legislative actions of the Philippine Commission that American control transitioned from military occupation to a structured civilian administration, setting the trajectory for the nation’s development under a new colonial power.

Historical Context

The story of the Philippine Commission begins with the twilight of Spanish rule. The Philippine Revolution, which erupted in 1896, had significantly weakened Spain’s grip on the islands. When the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898, the United States, initially supporting Filipino aspirations for independence, quickly became a new occupying power. The Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, formally ended the war, with Spain ceding Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam, and selling the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. This treaty, negotiated without Filipino representation, dashed hopes for immediate independence and ignited the Philippine-American War.

The Philippine-American War (1899-1902, though resistance continued for years) was a brutal conflict that saw the United States deploy significant military force to suppress the First Philippine Republic, led by Emilio Aguinaldo. As the war progressed, the US administration recognized the need to transition from a purely military government to a civilian one, not only to pacify the islands but also to legitimize its presence and implement its broader policy objectives.

US policy towards the Philippines was complex and often contradictory. President William McKinley famously articulated the policy of “Benevolent Assimilation,” suggesting a mission to uplift, educate, and Christianize the Filipinos (ignoring the fact that the majority were already Christian). However, underlying this rhetoric were significant strategic and economic interests, including access to Asian markets, naval bases, and the islands’ natural resources.

The initial response to the need for civilian input was the creation of the First Philippine Commission, also known as the Schurman Commission (1899). This body, headed by Cornell University President Jacob Gould Schurman, was primarily investigative. Its mandate was to assess conditions in the Philippines, gather information, and make recommendations regarding the establishment of civilian government. While it did not have legislative power, its findings influenced subsequent policy. The Schurman Commission recommended a transition to civilian rule, the establishment of a bicameral legislature, and the gradual extension of self-government.

Key Figures

The establishment and operation of the Philippine Commission involved several key individuals, both American and, later, Filipino.

American Officials:

William McKinley: US President who made the decision to annex the Philippines and initiated the policy of “Benevolent Assimilation.” He appointed the members of both the Schurman and Taft Commissions.
Elihu Root: US Secretary of War under McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. He was instrumental in formulating US colonial policy and overseeing the transition from military to civilian rule in the Philippines.
Jacob Schurman: Head of the First Philippine Commission (1899). His commission’s report provided foundational information and recommendations for the future governance of the islands.
William H. Taft: Head of the Second Philippine Commission (1900) and later the first Civil Governor of the Philippines (1901-1903). Taft was the driving force behind the early legislative program of the Philippine Commission. His approach emphasized infrastructure development, education, and the gradual inclusion of Filipinos in government, embodying the “Benevolent Assimilation” policy in practice.
Members of the Taft Commission: This body, initially composed entirely of Americans, included influential figures who shaped early colonial laws:
- Luke E. Wright: Served on the Commission, later became Civil Governor and Governor-General.
- Henry C. Ide: Served on the Commission, involved in legal reforms, later became Civil Governor.
- Dean C. Worcester: An zoologist and former member of the Schurman Commission, he was a powerful and controversial figure on the Taft Commission, particularly influential in matters concerning public health and non-Christian tribes.
- Bernard Moses: An academic who focused on establishing the civil service system.

Filipino Members (Appointed to the Commission in 1901):

Recognizing the need for Filipino participation and to co-opt the local elite, the US appointed three prominent Filipinos to the Philippine Commission in 1901:

Benito Legarda: A wealthy businessman and former member of the Malolos Congress.
Trinidad Pardo de Tavera: A physician, scholar, and member of the Federal Party.
Jose de Luzuriaga: A prominent figure from Negros.

These appointments marked a significant step in incorporating Filipinos into the highest levels of colonial government, though they remained a minority within the Commission.

Key Filipino Leaders (Interacting with the Commission):

While many Filipino leaders were engaged in armed resistance, others sought to work within the new framework. The Federal Party, founded in 1900, advocated for peace and eventual statehood within the United States. Its members, including Pardo de Tavera and Legarda, were key interlocutors with the Philippine Commission and benefited from the new political structure.

Key Events/Timeline

The period between 1899 and 1907 was critical for the establishment of American civilian rule and the legislative power of the Philippine Commission.

1899: The First Philippine Commission (Schurman Commission) is formed. It conducts investigations and submits its report recommending a civilian government.
1900: The Second Philippine Commission, headed by William H. Taft, arrives in the Philippines. Crucially, this commission is granted legislative and executive authority by President McKinley’s instruction. This marks the true beginning of the Philippine Commission as the primary law-making body.
September 1, 1900: The Philippine Commission formally begins its legislative work, enacting laws that would establish the structure of the new government.
1901: The Insular Government is formally established, replacing the military government in pacified areas. William H. Taft becomes the first Civil Governor. In a move to foster cooperation and provide representation (albeit appointed), three Filipino members are appointed to the Philippine Commission.
July 1, 1902: The United States Congress passes the Philippine Organic Act, also known as the Philippine Bill of 1902. This landmark act ratifies the laws already passed by the Philippine Commission, establishes the framework for the Insular Government, mandates a census, and promises the creation of an elected Philippine Assembly once peace is restored and the census completed. This act provided the foundational legal basis for the Commission’s authority from the US Congress itself.
1903: The first census of the Philippines under American rule is conducted, a requirement of the Philippine Bill of 1902.
1907: Following the successful census and relative pacification, elections are held for the Philippine Assembly. The Assembly convenes, and the Philippine Legislature becomes bicameral. The Philippine Commission serves as the upper house (composed of appointed members), while the Philippine Assembly serves as the lower house (composed of elected Filipino representatives). This marked a significant shift, introducing an elected element into the legislative process, though the Philippine Commission retained considerable power.

This timeline shows the rapid transition from military control to a civilian structure dominated by the appointed Philippine Commission, followed by the introduction of limited elected representation.

Causes for Legislating Control

The decision by the United States to establish a legislative body like the Philippine Commission and empower it to enact laws stemmed from a complex interplay of political, economic, and social factors.

Political:
- Establishment of US Sovereignty: The most immediate need was to translate the territorial acquisition from the Treaty of Paris into effective control and governance. Legislation was required to define the relationship between the US and the Philippines and assert American authority.
- Transition to Civilian Rule: The military government was seen as temporary and ill-suited for long-term administration and development. A civilian structure, legitimized through formal laws, was necessary for effective governance and to project an image of stability and permanence.
- Creation of Governmental Institutions: Governing an archipelago of thousands of islands with diverse populations required establishing a functional administrative apparatus – courts, civil service, local governments, etc. The Philippine Commission was tasked with creating the legal framework for these institutions from scratch.
- Pacification and Control: While military force was used to suppress the Philippine-American War, legislation provided tools for control through legal means – defining sedition, regulating public assembly, and establishing police forces. Co-opting Filipino elites through appointments and the promise of future participation was also a strategy facilitated by the new governmental structure.
Economic:
- Integration into the US System: The US sought to integrate the Philippine economy into its own sphere. This required laws regulating trade, currency, tariffs, and investment to benefit American businesses and consumers.
- Regulation of Resources and Land: The US was interested in the Philippines’ natural resources. Laws were needed to govern land ownership, mining rights, forestry, and agriculture, often favoring large-scale development or American interests. The issue of Friar Lands (large estates owned by religious orders) was particularly pressing and required legislative action.
- Legal Framework for Business: American and foreign investors needed a predictable legal environment. The Philippine Commission created laws related to corporations, contracts, property rights, and taxation to facilitate business operations.
Social/Cultural:
- Implementation of American Systems: The “Benevolent Assimilation” policy aimed to introduce American values, systems, and institutions. This manifested in laws establishing a public education system based on the American model, public health initiatives, and infrastructure projects (roads, bridges, ports) to modernize the islands and facilitate administration and commerce.
- Promotion of Westernization: Laws related to language (promoting English), public conduct, and social services aimed to gradually transform Philippine society along Western lines.
- Establishment of a Legal System: While Spanish law had a long history, the US introduced elements of American common law, particularly in areas like constitutional law, administrative law, and certain procedural aspects. The Philippine Commission was responsible for codifying and implementing this new hybrid legal system.

In essence, the legislative actions of the Philippine Commission were driven by the multifaceted goals of establishing undisputed political sovereignty, exploiting economic opportunities, and implementing a program of social and cultural change under the banner of benevolent assimilation.

Course of Events: The Commission’s Legislative Actions

Upon its arrival in 1900, the Taft Commission, acting as the Philippine Commission, immediately began its work of governance and legislation. Its laws were numbered sequentially, starting with Act No. 1. The volume and scope of its legislative output in the early years were immense, effectively building a new governmental and legal structure from the ground up.

Here are examples of key early legislation enacted by the Philippine Commission:

Act Number	Year Enacted	Subject Area	Primary Purpose / Impact
Act No. 2	1900	Judiciary	Established the Supreme Court and Court of First Instance, laying the foundation for the colonial judicial system.
Act No. 5	1900	Civil Service	Created a merit-based civil service system, aiming to reduce patronage and professionalize the bureaucracy.
Act No. 13	1900	Education	Provided for the organization of the Department of Public Instruction.
Act No. 74	1901	Education	Established the public school system, mandated English as the medium of instruction, and authorized the recruitment of American teachers (Thomasites).
Act No. 82	1901	Municipal Government	Organized municipal governments, providing for elected officials at the local level (albeit with property/literacy qualifications).
Act No. 83	1901	Provincial Government	Organized provincial governments, headed by governors (initially appointed, later elected) and boards.
Act No. 136	1901	Judiciary	Reorganized the court system, detailing the structure and jurisdiction of various courts.
Act No. 175	1901	Police/Constabulary	Created the Philippine Constabulary, a national police force under American officers, primarily for internal security and suppressing dissent.
Act No. 496	1902	Land Registration	The Land Registration Act (Torrens System), introducing a system for registering land titles to provide security of ownership.
Act No. 636	1903	Currency	Established a new monetary system based on a gold standard, linking the Philippine peso to the US dollar.
Act No. 926	1903	Public Land	The Public Land Act, regulating the disposal of public lands, including homesteading and sales. Often criticized for favoring large entities.
Act No. 1120	1904	Friar Lands	The Friar Land Act, authorizing the government to purchase large estates owned by religious orders for resale, intended to address agrarian unrest but had complex outcomes.

This table highlights the breadth of the Philippine Commission‘s legislative activity, covering everything from the structure of government and essential services like education and justice to critical economic matters like land and currency.

The Philippine Bill of 1902, passed by the US Congress, was a crucial turning point. It served as the organic act, essentially the constitution for the Insular Government, until the Jones Law of 1916. By ratifying the laws already enacted by the Philippine Commission, the US Congress validated the Commission’s authority and the legal structure it had created. The Bill also set conditions for the future, most notably mandating the census and promising the establishment of an elected Philippine Assembly. This introduced a timeline for greater Filipino participation in the legislative process.

The shift occurred in 1907 with the inauguration of the Philippine Assembly. From this point, the Philippine Commission ceased to be the sole legislative body. It became the upper house of a bicameral legislature, retaining significant power as its members were appointed and often American (though Filipino appointments continued). The Philippine Assembly, as the lower house, was composed entirely of elected Filipinos. This structure led to inherent dynamics and occasional conflicts between the appointed American-dominated Commission and the elected Filipino Assembly, reflecting the tensions between colonial control and aspirations for self-rule.

Consequences and Effects

The legislative work of the Philippine Commission had profound and lasting consequences across the political, economic, and social spheres of the Philippines.

Political:
- Solidification of American Rule: The laws enacted by the Philippine Commission effectively dismantled the remnants of the First Republic’s structure and replaced them with a centralized American-controlled administration. This solidified US sovereignty and established the framework for colonial governance that would last for decades.
- Foundation of the Modern State: The administrative, legal, and civil service systems created by the Commission’s early laws became the bedrock of the modern Philippine state. Institutions like the Supreme Court, the civil service, and the structure of local governments trace their origins directly to this period.
- Development of a Filipino Elite: The system of appointed positions (initially on the Commission, later in various branches of government) and the introduction of limited elections created opportunities for a Western-educated Filipino elite to participate in and benefit from the colonial system. This elite would later lead the independence movement within the framework established by the Americans.
- Introduction of Democratic Processes: While limited and controlled, the organization of municipal and provincial governments with elected officials introduced Filipinos to formal electoral processes, laying the groundwork for future democratic development.
Economic:
- Integration into the US Market: Laws regulating trade and currency tied the Philippine economy closely to that of the United States, fostering dependence. While this provided a protected market for certain Philippine products (like sugar and abaca), it also hindered the development of industries that might compete with American goods.
- Infrastructure Development: The Commission prioritized infrastructure projects (roads, ports, communication lines) through legislation and funding. These projects facilitated trade, administration, and military control but were often geared towards extracting resources and serving American economic interests.
- Changes in Land Ownership: The land laws, particularly the Public Land Act and the Friar Land Act, had complex and often negative consequences for small farmers. While intended to distribute land, they sometimes facilitated the acquisition of large tracts by corporations (both American and Filipino elite) or failed to adequately address the needs of landless peasants, contributing to agrarian issues that persisted for decades.
Social/Cultural:
- Dominance of English: The Education Act of 1901 mandating English as the medium of instruction had a transformative impact. English became the language of government, business, and higher education, profoundly influencing Philippine culture and creating a linguistic divide.
- Expansion of Public Education: The establishment of a widespread public school system significantly increased literacy rates and access to education, particularly compared to the Spanish era. This was a key component of “Benevolent Assimilation.”
- Improvements in Public Health: The Commission enacted laws and created institutions focused on public health, sanitation, and disease control, leading to improvements in living conditions and life expectancy, though sometimes implemented with coercive measures.
- Impact on Traditional Structures: The imposition of a centralized, Western-style government and legal system, coupled with the introduction of new economic practices, altered traditional social structures and power dynamics, often empowering those who could navigate the new colonial order.

The laws passed by the Philippine Commission during these early years were not merely administrative directives; they were foundational acts that fundamentally restructured Philippine society, economy, and governance, shaping its path for the entire period of American rule and influencing its post-independence development.

Significance

The Philippine Commission stands as a body of immense historical significance for several reasons:

Instrument of Control: It was the primary mechanism through which the United States translated military victory and treaty acquisition into effective political control and administration over the Philippine Islands. Its legislative power was the engine of the early colonial state.
Architect of Modern Institutions: The Commission laid the groundwork for many of the core institutions of the modern Philippine Republic, including its legal system, civil service, public education system, and administrative structure. The legacy of its organizational work is still visible today.
Embodiment of Colonial Policy: The composition, actions, and legislative priorities of the Philippine Commission clearly illustrate the nature of American colonial policy – a blend of asserting control, implementing reforms ostensibly for the benefit of the governed (“benevolent assimilation”), and strategically managing the islands for American interests.
Crucial Transitional Period: This period, dominated by the Commission’s legislative activity before the establishment of the elected Assembly, was crucial for setting the trajectory of Philippine political development under the US. It established the rules of the game within which Filipino political aspirations would have to operate.

Understanding the Philippine Commission and its legislative output is therefore essential for comprehending the origins of the modern Philippine state, the nature of its relationship with the United States, and the historical roots of many of its ongoing political, economic, and social challenges.

Different Perspectives and Controversies

Despite the American narrative of “Benevolent Assimilation” and the positive reforms enacted by the Philippine Commission, this period and the Commission’s work are subject to significant historical debate and controversy.

“Benevolent Assimilation”: Genuine Aid or Imperial Justification? Critics argue that “Benevolent Assimilation” was a euphemism for American imperialism. While acknowledging the introduction of public education and health reforms, they point to the violence of the Philippine-American War, the suppression of nationalist aspirations, and the economic policies that primarily benefited the US as evidence that the primary motive was control and exploitation, not genuine altruism. The laws passed by the Philippine Commission, from suppressing sedition to regulating trade, can be viewed through this critical lens.
Critiques of the Land Laws: The Public Land Act and the Friar Land Act are particularly controversial. While intended to create a system of land ownership and address historical grievances, critics argue they often facilitated the concentration of land ownership in the hands of American corporations and the Filipino elite, failed to protect the rights of indigenous communities, and contributed to landlessness among the majority of the population. The process of purchasing and reselling Friar Lands was also subject to scrutiny regarding transparency and beneficiaries.
Role of Filipino Collaborators vs. Resistance Fighters: The appointment of Filipinos to the Philippine Commission and other government positions raises questions about collaboration. While some view figures like Pardo de Tavera and Legarda as pragmatists who sought to work within the system to advance Filipino interests, others see them as collaborators who legitimized foreign rule and benefited personally. This contrasts with the perspective on those who continued armed resistance against American forces.
Effectiveness and Fairness of the Legal System: While the Philippine Commission established a formal legal system, its application was not always perceived as fair, particularly during the war and early pacification campaigns. Laws against sedition and banditry were broadly applied to suppress political dissent and resistance. The introduction of American legal concepts sometimes clashed with existing customs and Spanish legal traditions, creating complexities.

These different perspectives highlight that the legislative actions of the Philippine Commission, while building essential institutions, were also tools of colonial power, implemented within a context of conflict and contested legitimacy. The narrative of progress and benevolence is often challenged by the realities of control, economic exploitation, and the suppression of national independence.

Conclusion Summary

The Philippine Commission played an indispensable, albeit controversial, role in the early history of American colonial rule in the Philippines. Arriving with broad legislative and executive powers in 1900, the Taft-led Commission systematically enacted laws that established the fundamental structures of the Insular Government, replacing the military administration and laying the groundwork for the modern Philippine state.

Through landmark legislation covering areas such as the judiciary, civil service, education, land ownership, and local government, the Philippine Commission solidified American control, integrated the Philippine economy with that of the United States, and initiated significant social and cultural changes, most notably through the widespread introduction of English education.

While proponents highlight the administrative efficiency, infrastructure development, and public services introduced under the Commission’s authority, critics emphasize that these actions were fundamentally aimed at maintaining colonial power and served American strategic and economic interests, often at the expense of genuine Filipino self-determination and equitable development.

The period of the Philippine Commission‘s dominance (1900-1907), before the establishment of the elected Assembly, was a critical phase where the contours of American colonial policy were defined and legally enforced. The institutions and laws created during this time left an indelible mark on the Philippines, shaping its political system, legal framework, economy, and social fabric for decades to come and influencing its path towards independence and beyond. Understanding the Philippine Commission is crucial for anyone seeking to comprehend the complex legacy of American colonialism in the archipelago.

Key Takeaways:

The Philippine Commission was the primary legislative body in the early years of American colonial rule (1900-1907).
It was initially composed entirely of Americans (Taft Commission) and later included appointed Filipino members.
The Commission enacted foundational laws establishing the judiciary, civil service, public education, and local governments.
The Philippine Bill of 1902 ratified the Commission’s laws and set the stage for an elected Philippine Assembly.
In 1907, the Commission became the upper house of a bicameral legislature.
Its legislative actions solidified American control, integrated the Philippine economy with the US, and introduced significant social changes (like English education).
The Commission’s work is viewed through the lens of “Benevolent Assimilation” but is also criticized as an instrument of imperialism and for the adverse effects of some of its policies (e.g., land laws).
The institutions created by the Philippine Commission form the basis of many modern Philippine government structures.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):

What was the primary role of the Philippine Commission? Its primary role was to serve as the legislative body of the Insular Government of the Philippines during the early years of American colonial rule, enacting laws to establish and administer the government and implement US policy.
Who headed the most important Philippine Commission? The Second Philippine Commission, which held legislative power, was headed by William H. Taft, who later became the first Civil Governor.
When did the Philippine Commission operate as the sole legislative body? The Taft Commission operated as the sole legislative body from September 1, 1900, until the inauguration of the Philippine Assembly in 1907.
What was the Philippine Bill of 1902? It was the first organic act passed by the US Congress for the Philippines. It ratified the laws of the Philippine Commission, established the framework for government, and promised an elected assembly.
Were Filipinos members of the Philippine Commission? Yes, starting in 1901, three prominent Filipinos were appointed as members of the Philippine Commission. However, they were initially a minority within the body.
What were some key laws passed by the Commission? Notable laws include those establishing the court system (Judiciary Act), the civil service, the public school system (Education Act of 1901), municipal and provincial governments, and land laws (Public Land Act, Friar Land Act).
How did the Philippine Commission change after 1907? After 1907, it became the upper house of a bicameral Philippine Legislature, sharing legislative power with the elected Philippine Assembly.

Sources:

Agoncillo, Teodoro A. History of the Filipino People. 8th ed. Quezon City: Garotech Publishing, 1990.
Stanley, Peter W. A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899-1921. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974.
Worcester, Dean C. The Philippines Past and Present. New York: Macmillan, 1914. (Note: Worcester’s work represents the American colonial perspective).
May, Glenn Anthony. Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Aims, Execution, and Impact of American Colonial Policy, 1900-1913. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980.
Philippine Commission. Public Laws and Resolutions Passed by the Philippine Commission. (Various volumes covering the years 1900-1907). Available in historical archives and digital collections.
Treaty of Paris (1898). National Archives, United States. https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/treaty-of-paris
Philippine Organic Act (Philippine Bill of 1902). Available through historical legal databases.

Category: American Colonial Period (1901-1946)