Following the cessation of major hostilities in the Philippine-American War, the United States faced the complex challenge of establishing a stable civil government in the archipelago. This transition marked a pivotal moment in Philippine history, moving from military rule to a form of civil administration under American authority. At the heart of this administrative structure was the Philippine Commission. Far more than just an advisory body, the Philippine Commission served as the primary legislative and, for a time, executive authority, fundamentally shaping laws, institutions, and the trajectory of Filipino development and aspiration under American oversight. Understanding the Philippine Commission is crucial to grasping the nature of the American colonial project in the Philippines, its goals, methods, and impact on the Filipino people’s journey towards self-governance.
The creation and evolution of the Philippine Commission reflect the changing American policy towards the islands, shifting from initial military occupation towards a program of “benevolent assimilation” that aimed, at least in stated purpose, to prepare Filipinos for eventual self-rule while integrating them into the American sphere of influence. This body navigated the delicate balance between asserting American control and responding to growing Filipino demands for greater participation in their own governance. Its story is one of power, policy, negotiation, and the complex interplay between colonizer and colonized during a transformative era.
From Military Rule to Civil Administration: The Necessity of the Commission
When American forces first occupied parts of the Philippines in 1898, governance was primarily military. Generals like Wesley Merritt, Elwell S. Otis, and Arthur MacArthur Jr. held executive and legislative authority in occupied territories. However, military rule, while effective for wartime control, was seen as temporary and unsuitable for long-term administration and development. Both the American public and policymakers recognized the need to transition to a civil form of government that could establish laws, build infrastructure, create social services, and engage with the civilian population more constructively.
The official shift from military to civil control began incrementally. Key legal basis for this transition was the Spooner Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in March 1901. This act authorized the U.S. President to establish a civil government in the Philippines. This legislative step was crucial as it provided the legal framework for replacing military rule with a civilian structure headed by a commission that would exercise broad powers.
Before the Spooner Act, President William McKinley had already dispatched two commissions to the Philippines to study conditions and recommend governance structures. These were the First Philippine Commission (Schurman Commission) and the Second Philippine Commission (Taft Commission), which would become the primary governing body.
The First Philippine Commission (Schurman Commission)
Appointed in January 1899, while the Philippine-American War was beginning, the First Philippine Commission, headed by Jacob Gould Schurman (President of Cornell University), was tasked with investigating conditions in the islands and making recommendations for future governance. Its members included Dean C. Worcester (a zoologist), Charles Denby (a former diplomat), Admiral George Dewey, and General Elwell S. Otis. Their report, submitted in January 1900, acknowledged the Filipinos’ desire for self-governance but concluded they were not yet ready for complete independence. They recommended establishing a civilian government, focusing on education, infrastructure, and gradual transfer of power. While it did not govern, the Schurman Commission’s findings laid some groundwork for the policies the subsequent commission would implement.
The Second Philippine Commission (Taft Commission): Taking the Reins
The real governing body was the Second Philippine Commission, appointed by President McKinley in March 1900 and arriving in Manila in June 1900. This commission was initially advisory to the military governor but was granted legislative powers starting in September 1900 by presidential instruction. With the passage of the Spooner Act in March 1901, the Commission, now headed by William Howard Taft (who became the first Civil Governor on July 4, 1901), became the supreme executive and legislative body of the islands.
This commission, often referred to as the Taft Commission, was composed entirely of Americans at its inception. Its initial members included William Howard Taft, Dean C. Worcester, Luke E. Wright, Henry C. Ide, and Bernard Moses. These men, with diverse backgrounds ranging from law and academia to military and diplomacy, were tasked with building a government from the ground up in a foreign land recovering from war.
The powers granted to the Philippine Commission were extensive. They had the authority to:
- Enact laws for the entire archipelago.
- Organize the civil government at national, provincial, and municipal levels.
- Establish a judicial system.
- Create a public education system.
- Develop infrastructure like roads, bridges, and ports.
- Implement policies related to public health, land registration, and taxation.
- Appoint officials to various government positions.
Essentially, they were the combined legislature and executive branch of the colonial government until the establishment of the Philippine Assembly in 1907. The head of the commission was initially called the Civil Governor (Taft) and later the Governor-General.
Building the Colonial State: Key Policies and Legislation
The Philippine Commission was incredibly productive during its time as the sole legislative body (1900-1907). They passed hundreds of acts, laying the foundation for many institutions that still exist in the Philippines today. Their work aimed to create a modern administrative state, establish peace and order, and promote economic development under American guidance.
Here are some of the most significant areas and pieces of legislation initiated or enacted by the Commission:
- Establishing Civil Government Structure: The Commission organized the central government, creating executive departments and bureaus. They also enacted laws to create provincial and municipal governments. Act No. 83 (Provincial Government Act) and Act No. 82 (Municipal Code), both passed in 1901, were crucial in setting up local administrative units, granting limited autonomy and allowing for some Filipino participation at the local level.
- Judicial System: The Commission reorganized the court system, establishing the Supreme Court, Courts of First Instance, and lower courts. They introduced American legal concepts and procedures while incorporating some aspects of the existing Spanish legal framework.
- Public Education: One of the most lauded programs of the American period, the public education system was a top priority. The Commission passed Act No. 74 in January 1901, creating the Department of Public Instruction and establishing a system of free primary education. This act led to the arrival of the Thomasites, American teachers who spread English instruction across the islands. The goal was to educate Filipinos, create a common language (English), and instill American democratic values.
- Public Health: Recognizing the need to combat tropical diseases and improve sanitation, the Commission created the Bureau of Health. They implemented vaccination programs, improved sanitation facilities, and established hospitals and dispensaries.
- Infrastructure: Significant efforts were made to improve infrastructure. The Commission authorized funding and projects for building roads, railways, bridges, ports, and communication lines, which were essential for economic development and administrative control.
- Land Policy: The issue of friar lands (extensive agricultural lands owned by religious orders during the Spanish era) was a major point of contention. The Commission, led by Taft, negotiated the purchase of these lands from the Vatican through Act No. 1120 (Friar Lands Act of 1904). The intention was to redistribute these lands to Filipino tenants, though the actual implementation faced challenges. They also established a system for land registration (Act No. 496, Land Registration Act of 1902) to clarify ownership, but this process was often complex and favored those with resources.
- Economic Policy: The Commission implemented policies aimed at integrating the Philippine economy with that of the United States. While promoting agriculture, they also laid groundwork for infrastructure that supported trade. However, policies like the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909, while allowing Philippine goods duty-free access to the US market (with quotas), also allowed American goods into the Philippines duty-free, which critics argued hindered local industrial development.
- Civil Service: To ensure a professional and non-partisan bureaucracy, the Commission established a merit-based civil service system through Act No. 5 in 1900. Initially dominated by Americans, this system gradually incorporated more qualified Filipinos as education levels rose.
- Maintain Peace and Order: Beyond military action, the Commission passed laws aimed at suppressing remaining resistance and maintaining order. This included laws against sedition and brigandage, which were sometimes used to stifle political dissent.
Here is a table summarizing some key legislative achievements of the Philippine Commission:
| Act Number | Year | Description | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Act No. 5 | 1900 | Establishment of the Insular Civil Service | Created a merit-based system for government employees, aiming for professionalism. |
| Act No. 74 | 1901 | Establishment of a Department of Public Instruction | Created the public school system and brought in American teachers (Thomasites). |
| Act No. 82 | 1901 | The Municipal Code | Organized municipal governments and outlined their powers; allowed for local elections. |
| Act No. 83 | 1901 | The Provincial Government Act | Organized provincial governments; provided structure for local administration above municipalities. |
| Act No. 136 | 1902 | Reorganization of the Judicial System | Established the Supreme Court and lower courts; laid foundation for the modern judiciary. |
| Act No. 496 | 1902 | The Land Registration Act (Torrens System) | Introduced a system for registering land titles, aiming to clarify ownership. |
| Act No. 1120 | 1904 | The Friar Lands Act | Authorized the purchase of friar lands for redistribution (though complex in execution). |
| Act No. 1189 | 1904 | The Internal Revenue Law | Created a systematic internal revenue collection system. |
These acts represent a fundamental restructuring of Philippine society and governance according to American models and priorities. They introduced concepts of separation of powers (though initially concentrated in the Commission itself), public secular education, a merit-based bureaucracy, and a modern legal framework.
The Question of Filipino Participation and Aspirations
While the American policy was termed “benevolent assimilation,” and the stated goal was to prepare Filipinos for self-governance, the initial exclusion of Filipinos from the Philippine Commission itself was a point of contention and reflected the power dynamics of colonialism. Filipino nationalists, who had fought for independence, viewed American rule, even under a civilian body, as a continuation of foreign domination.
However, the Commission did eventually incorporate Filipino members, albeit gradually and initially in a minority capacity. In 1901, Taft recommended the appointment of three Filipino members to the Commission. President McKinley appointed Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda, and Jose Ruiz de Luzuriaga. These individuals were prominent Filipinos who generally accepted American sovereignty, believing that cooperation was the best path to eventual self-rule.
The inclusion of Filipino members was significant:
- It provided the Commission with local knowledge and perspectives, theoretically making laws more responsive to Filipino needs and conditions.
- It served as a practical lesson for Filipinos in American legislative processes and administrative governance.
- It was a symbolic gesture, aimed at demonstrating the American commitment to allowing Filipinos a role in their own government.
Despite their inclusion, the Filipino members were initially a minority (three out of eight members). The American members held the majority and thus ultimate decision-making power. While they participated in debates and contributed to legislation, they could not override the will of the American majority.
Filipino aspirations, however, extended beyond mere representation in an American-led body. The nationalist movement, though suppressed militarily, continued politically. Parties advocating for immediate or eventual independence, such as the Nacionalista Party, gained popular support. The creation of the Philippine Assembly in 1907 was a direct response to this growing demand for greater Filipino participation and self-governance.
Transitioning Power: The Philippine Assembly
The U.S. Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act (or Cooper Act) in 1902. This landmark legislation formally established a bill of rights for Filipinos, provided for the election of Filipino delegates to the U.S. Congress (Resident Commissioners), and, most importantly, mandated the creation of an elected Philippine Assembly once peace was established and a census completed.
The establishment of the Philippine Assembly in 1907 fundamentally changed the legislative structure in the Philippines. The Philippine Commission ceased to be the sole legislative body. Instead, it became the upper house of a bicameral legislature, while the Philippine Assembly, composed entirely of elected Filipinos, served as the lower house.
This marked a significant step:
- Filipinos now had a democratically elected body with legislative power.
- The Assembly held the power of the purse, controlling appropriations, which gave it considerable leverage.
- Key Filipino nationalist leaders, such as Sergio Osmeña (who became the Speaker of the Assembly) and Manuel L. Quezon, rose to prominence within this body.
While the Philippine Commission retained its legislative role (particularly over non-Christian tribes and appropriations if the Assembly failed to act) and its members continued to hold executive department portfolios, the creation of the Assembly represented a dilution of its power and a major advancement for Filipino representation. The dynamics shifted to one of negotiation and sometimes conflict between the American-dominated Commission/Executive and the Filipino-dominated Assembly.
The End of the Commission’s Legislative Role: The Jones Law
The next major turning point came with the passage of the Philippine Autonomy Act, commonly known as the Jones Law, by the U.S. Congress in 1916. This act promised eventual independence to the Philippines and significantly reorganized the government structure.
The Jones Law:
- Replaced the Philippine Commission with an elected Senate (composed of Filipinos) as the upper house of the legislature.
- Maintained the elected House of Representatives (formerly the Assembly) as the lower house.
- Established a fully Filipino-controlled legislature, with the exception of certain appointed senators representing non-Christian areas.
- Retained an American Governor-General as the chief executive, with significant powers, including the veto.
With the implementation of the Jones Law, the Philippine Commission ceased to exist as a legislative body. Its executive functions were absorbed by the office of the Governor-General and the executive departments, which were increasingly headed by Filipinos, although under American oversight. This represented a transition towards greater Filipino autonomy, moving closer to the Commonwealth period and eventual full independence.
Legacy and Evaluation
Evaluating the legacy of the Philippine Commission requires a balanced perspective. From the American viewpoint, it was a successful instrument of colonial administration that brought stability, established modern institutions, and implemented progressive social programs like public education and health, aiming to prepare Filipinos for self-governance. From the Filipino perspective, however, it was initially an uninvited foreign governing body that suppressed the independence movement and imposed American will and structures, even as it introduced beneficial reforms and gradually allowed for increased Filipino participation.
Positive Impacts Attributed to the Commission’s Era:
- Establishment of a functioning, centralized civil government.
- Creation of a widespread public education system, dramatically increasing literacy and creating an educated class.
- Improvements in public health and sanitation, leading to reduced mortality rates from diseases like smallpox and cholera.
- Development of infrastructure like roads, bridges, and port facilities, facilitating internal travel and trade.
- Introduction of a professional, merit-based civil service.
- Development of a modern legal and judicial system based on American principles.
- Gradual inclusion of Filipinos in government roles, providing training and experience in modern administration.
Criticisms and Negative Aspects:
- Suppression of the independence movement and harsh measures against dissenters.
- Economic policies that primarily served American interests, limiting Philippine industrialization and creating dependency on the U.S. market.
- Challenges in land reform, with the benefits of friar land purchase not fully reaching poor tenants and the land registration system sometimes dispossessing small farmers.
- The pace of “Filipinization” (transferring government positions to Filipinos) was often perceived as too slow by Filipino nationalists.
- Imposition of American culture and language, sometimes at the expense of local traditions and languages.
- The inherent contradiction of a foreign body ruling a people who desired sovereignty.
The Philippine Commission was undeniably a powerful force that restructured Philippine society, governance, and economy in fundamental ways. Its actions laid down the administrative skeleton for the modern Philippine state. While its existence represented a period of foreign rule and control, its policies in education, health, and civil service had lasting, positive effects. The gradual inclusion of Filipinos and the eventual transition to Filipino-led legislative bodies within the American framework were, in part, a result of the processes initiated or managed during the Commission’s tenure, often pushed forward by relentless Filipino political advocacy within and outside the system.
The story of the Philippine Commission is integral to understanding the complex colonial relationship between the United States and the Philippines, highlighting the ambitions of the colonizer and the persistent struggle for self-determination by the colonized people. It represents a unique phase where an appointed body wielded immense power to reshape a nation, setting the stage for the political developments that would follow.
Key Takeaways:
- The Philippine Commission was the primary governing body of the Philippines under the early American civil administration (1900-1916).
- It transitioned the Philippines from military rule to civil government following the Philippine-American War, legally empowered by the Spooner Act (1901).
- Initially composed entirely of Americans (Second Philippine/Taft Commission), it held vast legislative and executive powers, enacting laws, organizing government structures, and implementing policies.
- Key achievements included establishing the public education system, improving public health, building infrastructure, and organizing local governments.
- Filipinos were gradually included as members starting in 1901, providing local input but remaining a minority.
- The creation of the elected Philippine Assembly in 1907 transitioned the Commission to the upper house of a bicameral legislature, increasing Filipino participation significantly.
- The Commission’s legislative role ended with the passage of the Jones Law in 1916, which established a fully Filipino-elected legislature (Senate and House).
- Its legacy is mixed, credited with establishing modern institutions and services but also criticized for being an instrument of foreign rule and prioritizing American interests.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):
Q: What was the primary purpose of the Philippine Commission? A: The primary purpose of the Philippine Commission was to establish and administer a civil government in the Philippines under American authority, replacing military rule after the Philippine-American War and implementing policies for governance, development, and social services.
Q: When did the Philippine Commission exist? A: The Second Philippine Commission, which became the main governing body, was appointed in 1900. It held sole legislative and executive power from 1901 until the establishment of the Philippine Assembly in 1907. It continued as the upper legislative house until the Jones Law abolished its legislative function in 1916.
Q: Who was the head of the Philippine Commission? A: The head of the Philippine Commission was initially the Civil Governor, a position first held by William Howard Taft. Later, this position became known as the Governor-General, who also served as the Commission’s head.
Q: Did Filipinos serve on the Philippine Commission? A: Yes, Filipinos were appointed to the Philippine Commission starting in 1901. While initially a minority, their inclusion marked the beginning of formal Filipino participation in the central colonial government under American rule.
Q: How did the Philippine Commission impact education in the Philippines? A: The Philippine Commission had a massive impact on education by passing Act No. 74, which created a comprehensive public school system. This led to the establishment of schools across the archipelago and the introduction of English as the medium of instruction, fundamentally changing access to education and literacy rates.
Q: What was the relationship between the Philippine Commission and the Philippine Assembly? A: From 1907 until 1916, the Philippine Commission served as the upper house of the colonial legislature, while the Philippine Assembly, an elected body of Filipinos, served as the lower house. This created a bicameral system where laws generally required approval from both bodies.
Q: Why did the Philippine Commission’s legislative role end? A: The Philippine Commission’s legislative role ended with the passage of the Jones Law in 1916. This act replaced the Commission with an elected Senate, creating a fully Filipino-elected legislature (except for appointed representatives from certain minority areas), in line with the U.S. promise of eventual independence.
Conclusion
The Philippine Commission stands as a central institution in the history of the American colonial period. For over a decade, it was the primary force shaping the political, legal, social, and economic landscape of the Philippines. From organizing the government structure and legal system to launching nationwide programs in education and health, its impact was profound and lasting. While it operated within the framework of foreign rule, its actions initiated processes and built institutions that became integral to the modern Philippine state. The Commission’s journey from an appointed American-only body to one that included Filipino members and eventually shared legislative power with an elected Filipino assembly reflects the evolving dynamics of American colonial policy and the unwavering pursuit of self-governance by the Filipino people. Studying the Philippine Commission provides essential insights into the challenges and transformations of the early 20th century in the Philippines, offering valuable context for understanding the nation’s subsequent development.