Shaping Manila: American Urban Planning in the Philippines (1900-1941)

Introduction

The period of American colonial rule in the Philippines, spanning from 1900 to 1941, marked a transformative era in the archipelago’s history. Beyond political and economic shifts, this period witnessed a concerted effort to reshape the physical landscape of key urban centers, most notably Manila. American urban planning in the Philippines during these four decades was not merely an exercise in city beautification; it was a strategic tool of colonial administration, aimed at establishing control, facilitating economic activity, improving public health, and imposing American ideals of order and progress.

This article delves into the significance of American urban planning during this pivotal time, focusing primarily on Manila as the central case study. We will explore the historical context that necessitated such interventions, the diverse motivations behind the planning efforts, the key figures who spearheaded these initiatives, and the specific plans and projects undertaken. Furthermore, we will analyze the profound consequences and lasting legacy of this period of planned urban development, examining both its intended benefits and its controversial aspects. The transformation of urban landscapes under American rule laid the groundwork for the modern Philippine city, a legacy that continues to shape the lives of millions today.

Historical Context

To understand the impact of American urban planning, it is crucial to first appreciate the state of Manila and other Philippine cities at the turn of the 20th century.

Manila under Spanish Colonial Rule

For over three centuries, Manila served as the administrative and economic heart of the Spanish East Indies. The city was characterized by its historic walled core, Intramuros, a dense, grid-patterned settlement housing the colonial government, religious institutions, and Spanish elite. Surrounding Intramuros were numerous arrabales (suburbs) that had grown organically over time, including Tondo, Binondo, Santa Cruz, Quiapo, Sampaloc, Malate, and Paco. These arrabales were home to diverse communities – Filipino natives, Chinese merchants, mestizos, and other ethnic groups – and featured a mix of residential, commercial, and religious structures, often with winding streets and less formal layouts compared to the rigid grid of Intramuros.

While Intramuros boasted impressive stone fortifications and colonial architecture, the city as a whole faced significant challenges. Urban infrastructure was rudimentary. Streets in the arrabales were often narrow and unpaved. Drainage systems were inadequate, leading to perennial flooding during the rainy season. Access to clean water was limited for much of the population.

Sanitation and Infrastructure Challenges in Late 19th-Century Manila

The lack of proper sanitation and infrastructure created a breeding ground for disease. Manila, like many tropical cities of the era, frequently suffered from epidemics of cholera, smallpox, and other infectious diseases. The Spanish colonial government had made some attempts at improvement in the late 19th century, such as building the Carriedo water system, but these efforts were insufficient to cope with the growing population and the inherent challenges of the urban environment. The city’s port facilities were also outdated and inadequate for increasing international trade.

The Spanish-American War and the American Occupation

The historical trajectory of the Philippines was dramatically altered by the Spanish-American War in 1898. Following the mock Battle of Manila, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States under the Treaty of Paris. This marked the end of Spanish rule and the beginning of the American colonial period. While Filipino revolutionaries, who had declared independence and established the First Philippine Republic, resisted the new colonizers, the United States gradually solidified its control through the Philippine-American War (1899-1902) and the subsequent establishment of a civil government.

American Motivations for Occupation and Establishing Civil Government

American motivations for occupying the Philippines were complex, ranging from economic interests (access to Asian markets, resources) and strategic considerations (naval base in the Pacific) to ideological justifications (the “white man’s burden,” civilizing mission, preparing Filipinos for self-governance). Establishing a stable, efficient civil government was seen as essential for consolidating control, pacifying the population, and implementing American policies. Urban planning quickly emerged as a critical component of this civil administration.

Causes and Motivations for Urban Planning

The decision to undertake ambitious urban planning initiatives in the Philippines, particularly in Manila, stemmed from a confluence of political, economic, social, and cultural factors.

• Political:
  • Establishing Control: A well-ordered city, with clear street layouts and visible government buildings, symbolized the presence and authority of the new colonial power. It facilitated administration and policing.
  • Showcasing American Modernity and Efficiency: The Americans aimed to present their rule as superior to the Spanish, highlighting their technological prowess and organizational skills through modern infrastructure and planned urban spaces.
  • Creating a Capital Suitable for a Colonial Administration: Manila needed to be transformed into a capital city that reflected the power and aspirations of the United States in Asia, capable of housing a large bureaucracy and hosting international visitors.
• Economic:
  • Facilitating Trade and Commerce: Improved port facilities, wider roads, and efficient transportation networks were essential for handling increased trade volume and moving goods within and through the city.
  • Developing Infrastructure: Investing in infrastructure like roads, bridges, and utilities stimulated economic growth and supported American business interests.
• Social:
  • Improving Public Health and Sanitation: Addressing the rampant disease and poor sanitation was a major priority, both for the health of the local population and the American administrators and military personnel stationed in the city. Planned drainage, sewage systems, and access to clean water were seen as vital.
  • Creating Public Spaces: The American concept of urban life included public parks, civic centers, and recreational areas, intended to promote social interaction, leisure, and a sense of community order.
• Cultural:
  • Imposing American Ideals of Order, Beauty, and Public Life: American planners, influenced by the City Beautiful movement, sought to create orderly, aesthetically pleasing cities with grand boulevards, monumental buildings, and green spaces, contrasting with the perceived ‘backwardness’ or unplanned nature of existing Spanish and local urbanism.
  • Contrasting with Perceived ‘Backwardness’: The planned city was a physical manifestation of the American narrative of bringing progress and civilization to the islands.

These motivations were intertwined. Political control was strengthened by economic development and improved public health, all presented within a framework of American cultural superiority and modernity.

Key Figures

The ambitious urban planning projects of the American period were spearheaded by several influential figures, both American and eventually, Filipino engineers and architects who trained under them.

Figure	Role	Key Contribution
William H. Taft	First Civil Governor of the Philippines (later President of the US)	Commissioned Daniel Burnham to develop comprehensive plans for Manila and Baguio.
Daniel H. Burnham	Renowned American Architect and Urban Planner	Authored the foundational “Report on the Proposed Improvements at Manila” and the plan for Baguio City (1905).
Pierce Anderson	Associate of Daniel Burnham	Worked on the ground in Manila to gather data and assist in the development of the Burnham Plan.
William E. Parsons	Supervising Architect, Bureau of Public Works (1905-1914)	Instrumental in implementing the Burnham Plan’s architectural components; designed many key government buildings.
Edgar K. Bourne	Engineer, Bureau of Public Works (worked with Parsons)	Involved in the engineering aspects of implementing the plans, particularly infrastructure.
Tomas Mapúa	First registered Filipino architect	Studied in the US, worked for the Bureau of Public Works under Parsons, later designed significant buildings.

William H. Taft, as the head of the civil government, provided the political will and commissioned the initial plans. Daniel H. Burnham, already famous for his work on the Chicago World’s Columbian Exposition (1893) and the Plan for Washington D.C. (1902), brought the principles of the City Beautiful movement to the Philippines. His associate, Pierce Anderson, did the crucial on-site work. William E. Parsons, a talented architect, was responsible for translating Burnham’s grand vision into tangible structures and continued to shape the urban landscape through his designs and supervision of the Bureau of Public Works. While the initial key figures were American, the process gradually involved and trained Filipino professionals who would continue the work.

Key Events and Timeline

The implementation of American urban planning in the Philippines unfolded over several decades, marked by key commissions, plan approvals, and construction phases.

• 1900: The Second Philippine Commission, headed by William H. Taft, is established to organize and administer the civil government. Early efforts focus on establishing basic services and infrastructure.
• 1903: The Philippine Commission passes Act No. 642, authorizing the government to secure the services of an expert to prepare plans for the improvement of Manila.
• 1904: Daniel H. Burnham is officially commissioned by Taft to create comprehensive plans for the development of Manila and the layout of a new summer capital in Baguio. He visits the Philippines for this purpose.
• 1905: Burnham submits his detailed “Report on the Proposed Improvements at Manila” and the plan for Baguio. The Philippine Commission approves these plans. William E. Parsons arrives in the Philippines to become the Supervising Architect of the Bureau of Public Works, tasked with implementing the architectural aspects of the plans.
• 1905 onwards: The implementation phase begins under the Bureau of Public Works. This involves detailed surveys, land acquisition, and the commencement of major construction projects.
• 1906-1909: Initial focus on infrastructure: Port Area expansion, construction of new wharves, dredging of the Pasig River, and improvement of road networks.
• 1910s: Development of the civic center area south of Intramuros begins. Construction starts on key government buildings designed by Parsons and others. Development of Dewey Boulevard along Manila Bay commences. Work on the Baguio plan progresses, establishing its road network and public spaces.
• 1920s-1930s: Continued urban development, including the construction of more government buildings (e.g., Legislative Building, Post Office), expansion of parks, development of new residential subdivisions, and further improvements to infrastructure. The Commonwealth period (starting 1935) continues many of these development trends.
• 1941: By the eve of World War II, significant portions of the Burnham Plan for Manila have been realized, transforming the city’s appearance and functionality. The Japanese invasion halts further American-led development.

This timeline highlights the rapid pace of planning and implementation in the initial years and the sustained effort throughout the American period to realize the vision set forth by Burnham and refined by subsequent administrators and architects.

Course of Urban Development (The Burnham Plan and its Implementation)

The core of American urban planning in the Philippines was the ambitious plan developed by Daniel H. Burnham.

The Burnham Plan for Manila

Burnham’s plan for Manila was heavily influenced by the principles of the City Beautiful movement, which advocated for monumental grandeur, classical architecture, broad avenues, and expansive park systems to inspire civic pride and improve the moral and social lives of urban dwellers.

• Core Principles:
  • Grand Avenues: Wide, tree-lined boulevards to facilitate traffic, provide vistas, and connect different parts of the city.
  • Park Systems: A network of interconnected parks and green spaces for recreation, health, and aesthetic appeal.
  • Waterfront Development: Utilizing the Pasig River and Manila Bay waterfronts for both functional (port) and aesthetic (scenic drives, promenades) purposes.
  • Civic Center: A concentrated area for government buildings, designed to be impressive and easily accessible.
  • Emphasis on Aesthetics and Public Health: Integrating beauty with practical considerations like drainage, sewage, and sanitation.
• Key Features:
  • Comprehensive Road Network: Proposed a hierarchy of roads, including major arteries and secondary streets, designed to improve circulation throughout the expanding city.
  • Large Park System: Envisioned connecting existing green spaces like the Luneta with new parks along the waterfront and river, creating a contiguous system.
  • Development of Waterfronts: Proposed a modern port area along Manila Bay and beautification of the Pasig River banks. This included the iconic Dewey Boulevard (now Roxas Boulevard), a scenic drive along the bay.
  • Central Civic and Government Complex: Identified the area south of Intramuros (now the Ermita/Malate area) as the ideal location for a grand complex housing the major branches of government and cultural institutions.
  • Improved Drainage and Sanitation: While the plan was primarily aesthetic and functional, underlying engineering efforts focused heavily on addressing the city’s severe drainage and sewage problems.

Implementation Challenges

Implementing such a grand plan in a colonial context was fraught with challenges:

• Funding and Resources: Securing the necessary funds for large-scale infrastructure and building projects was a constant challenge, requiring prioritization and lobbying.
• Acquisition of Land and Displacement: The plan required acquiring large tracts of land, often displacing existing communities or altering traditional land use patterns. This led to social friction and resistance.
• Adapting to Local Conditions: The tropical climate, seismic activity, and existing urban fabric required adaptations to the imported design principles.
• Bureaucratic Processes: Coordinating various government agencies and dealing with administrative hurdles slowed down the implementation process.
• World War I and Economic Fluctuations: Global events and economic downturns occasionally impacted the pace of development.

Major Projects Undertaken

Despite the challenges, significant progress was made in realizing the Burnham Plan’s vision.

• Port Area Expansion: Modern wharves and port facilities were constructed along Manila Bay, dramatically increasing the city’s capacity for international shipping.
• Construction of Government Buildings: Numerous neoclassical buildings were erected in the planned civic center and other areas, including the Legislative Building (now National Museum of Fine Arts), the Post Office Building, the Department of Finance, and the Department of Agriculture buildings. These were often designed by William E. Parsons and later, Filipino architects.
• Development of Dewey Boulevard (Roxas Blvd.): This iconic bayfront road was built, providing a scenic connection and opening up the bay area for development and recreation.
• Improvements to the Luneta (Rizal Park): The existing Luneta became a central feature of the park system, expanded and landscaped to serve as a major public space.
• Construction of New Bridges and Roads: Several new bridges were built across the Pasig River, and existing roads were widened and paved, significantly improving transportation flow.
• Establishment of New Residential Areas: While not always strictly part of the original Burnham plan, subsequent planning efforts and private development led to the creation of new residential districts based on more orderly layouts and improved infrastructure (e.g., parts of San Andres, Santa Mesa).

Planning Beyond Manila

The principles of American urban planning were not confined to the capital.

• The Plan for Baguio City: Burnham also designed the layout for Baguio, envisioned as the summer capital due to its cooler climate. His plan created a mountain resort city with a clear road network (including Session Road), public spaces (Burnham Park), and designated areas for government buildings and residences, adapting his principles to the unique mountainous terrain.
• Application in Other Cities: Similar planning principles, focusing on grid layouts, public plazas, and improved sanitation, were applied to varying degrees in other provincial capitals and key cities across the archipelago. This influenced the development of urban centers like Cebu, Iloilo, and Zamboanga.

Consequences and Effects

The period of American urban planning had profound and lasting consequences on the physical, economic, social, and cultural landscape of the Philippines.

• Physical Transformation: Manila and other planned cities were physically transformed from their Spanish colonial and pre-colonial forms into more modern, orderly urban centers with wider streets, dedicated public spaces, and monumental buildings. The contrast between the old walled city of Intramuros and the new districts south of the Pasig River became stark.
• Infrastructure Development: The most undeniable positive impact was the significant improvement in infrastructure. Modern ports, extensive road networks, new bridges, and improved water and drainage systems laid the foundation for future urban growth and connectivity.
• Public Health: Investments in sanitation, sewage systems, and clean water access, though unevenly distributed, contributed to a reduction in the incidence of certain waterborne diseases and improved overall public health conditions compared to the late Spanish era.
• Economic Impact: The improved infrastructure, particularly the port and road systems, facilitated trade and commerce, supporting the colonial economy. The creation of distinct commercial districts also streamlined business activities.
• Social Impact:
  • Creation of Distinct Zones: The planning process led to the clearer delineation of functional zones – government centers, commercial districts, residential areas, and recreational spaces – which altered traditional urban living patterns.
  • Impact on Existing Communities: While some benefited from improvements, others, particularly those living in areas designated for redevelopment or infrastructure projects, faced displacement and disruption of their communities and livelihoods.
  • Introduction of New Concepts of Public Space: The emphasis on large public parks and civic spaces introduced American concepts of leisure and collective gathering, which were different from the traditional Spanish plaza system.
• Cultural Impact: The imposition of Western architectural styles (neoclassical) and urban design principles significantly shaped the aesthetic of Philippine cities, influencing local architects and planners for decades. This represented a deliberate effort to project American cultural dominance and modernity.
• Long-Term Legacy: The Burnham Plan and subsequent American planning efforts laid the foundation for modern urban planning practices in the Philippines. The grid system, the concept of a civic center, and the importance of infrastructure remain influential in city development today. Many of the buildings and infrastructure projects from this era are still in use.

Significance

The American period of urban planning holds significant importance in Philippine history for several reasons:

• Major Period of Planned Development: It represents the first comprehensive, large-scale attempt to plan and shape Philippine cities using modern urban planning principles.
• Intersection of Colonial Power and Modernization: The planning efforts vividly illustrate how colonial powers used urban development as a tool to assert control, demonstrate technological superiority, and integrate the colony into global economic networks, all under the guise of modernization and improvement.
• Shaped Physical Layout and Character: The plans fundamentally altered the physical layout and character of Manila and other key cities, creating the urban fabric that would persist and evolve throughout the 20th century.
• Introduced Principles of Modern Planning: Concepts like comprehensive planning, zoning (though rudimentary), sanitation engineering, and the deliberate creation of public spaces were introduced and became integral to subsequent urban development in the country.

Different Perspectives and Controversies

While the American planning efforts brought undeniable improvements in infrastructure and sanitation, they are also viewed through the lens of colonialism and have been subject to various interpretations and controversies.

• Colonial Imposition: Critics argue that the plans were primarily designed to serve the interests of the American colonial administration and American businesses, rather than the needs and preferences of the Filipino population. The focus on grand government buildings and efficient ports supports this view.
• Cultural Appropriateness: The imposition of Western architectural styles and urban models is seen by some as a disregard for or suppression of local building traditions and urban forms. Was the imported American model truly suitable for the Philippine climate, culture, and existing social structures?
• Displacement and Inequality: The process of land acquisition and redevelopment often resulted in the displacement of poor communities and reinforced existing social inequalities, as the benefits of the planned city were not equally accessible to all residents.
• Filipino Agency: To what extent were Filipinos involved in the planning process beyond being laborers or lower-level functionaries? While Filipino engineers and architects were eventually trained and employed, the initial vision and decision-making were firmly in American hands. Filipino perspectives on how their cities should develop were largely sidelined.

Historians continue to debate the motivations and impacts, acknowledging the tangible improvements while critically analyzing the colonial context and its implications for Filipino self-determination and cultural identity. The planned city, therefore, stands as a complex legacy – a symbol of both modernization and colonial control.

Conclusion Summary

The American colonial period (1900-1941) was a pivotal era for urban development in the Philippines, driven by a strategic blend of political, economic, social, and cultural motivations. At its heart was the ambitious urban plan for Manila authored by Daniel H. Burnham, which envisioned a modern capital characterized by grand avenues, extensive park systems, and a central civic complex, heavily influenced by the City Beautiful movement.

The implementation of the Burnham Plan and subsequent planning efforts, primarily led by figures like William E. Parsons through the Bureau of Public Works, faced numerous challenges but resulted in significant physical transformations. Major projects like the expansion of the Port Area, the construction of neoclassical government buildings, the creation of Dewey Boulevard, and improvements to the Luneta fundamentally reshaped Manila’s landscape. Similar principles were applied in the planning of Baguio City and influenced development in other provincial centers.

The consequences of this period were far-reaching, leading to substantial improvements in infrastructure and public health, facilitating economic activity, and altering social patterns through the creation of distinct urban zones. Culturally, it imposed Western architectural and planning ideals that left a lasting imprint. However, this legacy is complex and controversial, viewed by many as a product of colonial imposition that prioritized American interests and aesthetics, sometimes at the expense of local communities and cultural appropriateness.

Ultimately, American urban planning in the Philippines laid the foundation for the modern Philippine city, introducing concepts and structures that continue to influence urban development today. It stands as a powerful example of how colonial power can reshape physical space, leaving behind a complex inheritance that reflects both progress and the enduring questions of sovereignty, identity, and equitable development.

Key Takeaways:

• American urban planning (1900-1941) significantly transformed Philippine cities, especially Manila and Baguio.
• The Burnham Plan for Manila was a key document, emphasizing grand avenues, parks, and a civic center, influenced by the City Beautiful movement.
• Motivations were multi-faceted: political control, economic efficiency, public health improvement, and cultural imposition.
• Key figures included William H. Taft, Daniel H. Burnham, and William E. Parsons.
• Major projects included port expansion, government building construction, and infrastructure development (roads, bridges, drainage).
• The legacy is mixed: undeniable infrastructure and public health improvements alongside criticisms of colonial imposition, cultural appropriateness, and social displacement.
• This period introduced modern urban planning principles that continue to shape Philippine cities.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):

• What was the main goal of American urban planning in Manila? The main goals were multifaceted: to establish effective colonial administration, facilitate trade and economic growth, improve public health and sanitation, and create a modern, aesthetically pleasing capital that reflected American ideals and power.
• Who designed the famous plan for Manila? The foundational plan for Manila was designed by renowned American architect and urban planner Daniel H. Burnham, in collaboration with his associate Pierce Anderson.
• What were some key features of the Burnham Plan? Key features included a comprehensive road network, a large park system connecting green spaces, development of the waterfronts (Pasig River and Manila Bay), and the creation of a central civic and government complex.
• Was the Burnham Plan fully implemented? Significant portions of the Burnham Plan were implemented, particularly the infrastructure (port, roads, bridges) and the civic center area with its government buildings. However, some aspects, like the full realization of the extensive park system, faced challenges and were not completed exactly as envisioned.
• What was the legacy of American urban planning in the Philippines? The legacy includes laying the groundwork for modern urban infrastructure, introducing concepts of comprehensive planning and zoning, and shaping the physical layout and architectural style of key cities. However, it also raises questions about colonial influence, cultural appropriateness, and social equity in urban development.
• Why is Baguio City’s layout different? Baguio City was also planned by Daniel Burnham, but its layout was specifically designed for its function as a mountain resort and summer capital, adapting planning principles to the steep terrain with winding roads and integrated green spaces.

Sources:

• Burnham, Daniel H. Report on the Proposed Improvements at Manila. Daniel H. Burnham and Pierce Anderson, 1905. (Primary source, often reprinted or available in archives).
• Doeppers, Daniel F. Manila, 1900-1941: Social Change in a Late Colonial Metropolis. Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1984.
• Legarda, Benito, Jr. The Colonial Crucible: Empire, Religion, and the Prewar Philippine Economy. Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2017.
• Roces, Alfredo, et al. Culture and History of the Philippines. Anvil Publishing, 1998.
• Valencia, Linda B. The City Beautiful: The Philippine Experience. National Historical Institute, 1992.
• Various historical documents and reports from the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs and the Philippine Bureau of Public Works (available in archives like the U.S. National Archives or the National Library of the Philippines).