Philippine Pre-Colonial Guerrilla Warfare

Long before the arrival of European colonizers, the islands that would eventually form the Pre-Colonial Philippines were home to diverse and dynamic societies. These indigenous communities, varying from small, independent barangays to larger, more complex sultanates, engaged in sophisticated forms of conflict, defense, and resistance. While the term “guerrilla warfare” is often associated with later periods of resistance against foreign occupation, the foundational elements – irregular tactics, deep knowledge of the local environment, hit-and-run strategies, and the use of ambush – were integral to Indigenous Filipino Warfare. Understanding these pre-Hispanic military practices provides crucial context for the enduring spirit of resistance seen throughout Philippine history.

This article delves into the nature of conflict and the tactics employed by various groups across the archipelago in the centuries leading up to Spanish colonization. We will explore the social structures that shaped warfare, the diverse array of Native weaponry used, the strategic importance of terrain, and the early instances of resistance against the initial waves of foreign contact, most notably the pivotal Battle of Mactan. By examining these elements, we gain insight into the resilience and military acumen of the peoples of the Pre-Colonial Philippines.

The Context of Conflict in Pre-Colonial Philippines

Life in the Pre-Colonial Philippines was not a state of perpetual peace. Conflict was a reality shaped by social, economic, and political factors. Understanding the nature of these conflicts is essential to appreciating the warfare tactics developed by indigenous groups.

Diverse Societies and Political Structures

The archipelago was a mosaic of distinct ethnolinguistic groups, each with its own customs, political organization, and martial traditions. The most common political unit was the barangay, a community typically comprising 30 to 100 families, often situated along rivers or coastlines. Each barangay was led by a Datu, a chief or headman, whose authority was based on lineage, wealth, and prowess, including military skill. Conflicts between barangays were frequent, driven by various motives.

In Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, more complex political entities existed, notably the Sultanates of Mindanao (like the Sultanate of Sulu, Maguindanao, and Lanao). These sultanates, influenced by Islamic political and social systems, commanded larger populations and resources, enabling them to field more organized forces and engage in wider-ranging conflicts and maritime expeditions.

Beyond the coastal and lowland barangays and sultanates, mountainous regions were inhabited by groups like the Igorot peoples of Northern Luzon and various Lumad peoples in Mindanao. These groups, often more isolated, developed warfare strategies uniquely adapted to their challenging upland environments, frequently resisting incursions from lowland neighbors and, later, colonial powers. The diversity of these societies meant a diversity in their approaches to conflict and defense.

Causes of Conflict

Conflicts in the Pre-Colonial Philippines arose from several factors:

Raiding (Mangayaw): A prevalent practice, particularly in the Visayas, where groups would conduct maritime expeditions (often referred to by terms like mangayaw) to acquire wealth, prestige, and slaves. These raids involved surprise attacks on other communities, emphasizing speed and stealth.
Resource Control: Disputes over valuable resources such as land, water access, hunting grounds, or trade routes were common triggers for inter-barangay conflict.
Honor and Revenge: Insults, breaches of agreements, or acts of violence against members of a community could lead to cycles of revenge attacks, known as sambil or busung in some cultures.
Slavery (Alipin acquisition): Capturing individuals for slavery was a significant motive for raids and warfare, as slaves represented a form of wealth and labor.
Expansion and Dominance: More powerful Datu or sultanates sought to extend their influence, tribute networks, or territory, leading to larger-scale engagements.

These motivations often intertwined, fueling a dynamic environment where communities needed to be constantly prepared for defense or offense.

The Role of Warriors and Social Hierarchy

Within the barangay and other political structures, specific classes were associated with warfare. The Datu themselves were often expected to be skilled warriors and leaders in battle. Below the Datu were classes of freemen or nobles, such as the Maharlika in some Tagalog societies or Timawa in the Visayas. The Timawa, in particular, were renowned Visayan warriors, owing allegiance to their Datu and serving as his fighting force in times of conflict or raiding expeditions. Their status was often tied to their military service and prowess. Commoners (like the Alipin or Oripun) might also participate in warfare, often in support roles or as part of a larger levy. The social hierarchy thus played a direct role in organizing and executing Indigenous Filipino Warfare.

Pre-Colonial Warfare Tactics and Strategies

The nature of conflict in the Pre-Colonial Philippines fostered the development of tactics that were highly effective against adversaries operating under similar conditions, and later, posed significant challenges to the more conventional forces of arriving foreigners. These tactics often bear resemblance to what we now call “guerrilla warfare.”

Knowledge of Terrain and Environment

Intimate familiarity with the local geography was perhaps the most significant advantage held by indigenous warriors. The archipelago’s landscape is characterized by dense jungles, rugged mountains, intricate coastlines, and numerous rivers and islands. Indigenous Filipino Warfare exploited these features:

Jungle and Mountain Warfare: Warriors used the dense vegetation and difficult mountain passes for cover, ambushes, and rapid movement. The Igorot resistance in the Cordillera mountains is a prime example of how challenging terrain could be utilized to frustrate invaders.
Coastal and Riverine Tactics: Communities situated along water bodies used rivers and coastlines as highways for swift movement and surprise attacks. Their mastery of watercraft was crucial for raids (mangayaw) and coastal defense.
Ambushes: Hidden paths, river bends, and jungle trails were ideal locations for setting ambushes, catching unsuspecting enemies in confined spaces.

This deep Terrain advantage allowed smaller forces to engage larger ones on favorable terms, minimizing direct confrontation and maximizing the element of surprise.

Ambush and Hit-and-Run Tactics

Given the frequent nature of raids and inter-barangay conflicts, Ambush and Raid tactics were central to indigenous warfare. Rather than large-scale pitched battles (though these did occur), preferred methods often involved:

Surprise Attacks: Approaching an enemy settlement or war party under the cover of darkness or difficult terrain.
Hit-and-Run: Striking quickly to inflict damage, seize resources or captives, and then retreating rapidly before the enemy could mount a coordinated defense or counterattack. This minimized casualties for the raiding party.
Feigned Retreats: Luring an enemy into a trap by simulating a withdrawal.

These tactics were effective for achieving objectives like acquiring slaves or goods, demonstrating strength, and avoiding prolonged, costly engagements.

Fortifications and Defenses

While mobile tactics were crucial, pre-colonial communities also developed defensive structures. Fortifications (kuta) were built, often strategically located to utilize natural defenses. These could range from simple earthworks and palisades around a village to more substantial stone or wooden forts, particularly in areas prone to frequent attack or in the larger sultanates. Some communities in Mindanao, for instance, built impressive stone and earth kuta along riverways.

Other defensive measures included:

Watchtowers: For early detection of approaching enemies.
Traps: Concealed pits with sharpened stakes or other hazards.
Natural Barriers: Utilizing cliffs, rivers, or dense jungle as part of the defensive plan.

The famous kuta of the Sultanates of Mindanao and the defenses encountered by the Spanish in early engagements around the Kingdom of Maynila highlight the indigenous capacity for building effective defensive structures, complementing their mobile warfare style. Some settlements also incorporated defensive architecture like ditches or walls (lingling-o in some northern groups).

Naval Warfare and Raiding

Maritime capabilities were fundamental to life in the archipelago, and this extended to warfare. Indigenous peoples were skilled boatbuilders and sailors.

Karakoa: Large, fast warships used by the Visayans, often decorated and capable of carrying numerous warriors. These were central to mangayaw raids.
Fleet Formations: Expeditions often involved multiple vessels coordinating attacks.
Coastal Invasions: Fleets would land warriors for surprise attacks on coastal settlements.

The ability to navigate the seas and rivers, and to launch swift, amphibious assaults, was a key component of Austronesian warfare across Southeast Asia, and the Filipinos were adept practitioners of these Raid tactics.

Psychological Warfare and Intimidation

Psychological elements were also employed in pre-colonial warfare. Warriors often adorned themselves with elaborate tattoos, warpaint, and ornaments, intended to intimidate enemies. War cries, gongs, and other loud noises were used to disorient and frighten opponents during an attack. Taking heads or displaying captured banners were also practices in some cultures to demoralize the enemy and enhance the prestige of the victorious warriors.

Weaponry of Pre-Colonial Filipino Warriors

Indigenous Filipino Warfare was conducted with a diverse array of locally crafted Native weaponry, showcasing impressive metallurgical and crafting skills. These weapons were designed for close-quarters combat, projectile attacks, and defense, and were well-suited to the tactics employed. The Boxer Codex, a 16th-century manuscript, provides valuable illustrations and descriptions of some of these weapons and the appearance of Filipino warriors.

Blades

Bladed weapons were central to hand-to-hand combat and were highly varied in design, often associated with specific ethnic groups.

Kris: A wavy or straight dagger or sword, particularly associated with the Moro people of Mindanao and Sulu. Its unique shape was believed to inflict more grievous wounds.
Kampilan: A long, single-edged sword with a distinctive split tip, often used by groups in Mindanao like the Maguindanao and Iranun. It was a fearsome weapon in battle.
Barong: A thick, leaf-shaped blade used by the Moro people, primarily the Tausug. It was known for its chopping power.
Bolo/Itak: Common working and fighting blades found throughout the archipelago, with many regional variations.
Spears (Sibat/Budjak): Used for both thrusting and throwing. They came in various sizes and with different types of heads.
Daggers (Balarao): Smaller blades used as secondary weapons or for close-in fighting.

These blades were not just tools of war but also often held cultural and spiritual significance.

Projectile Weapons

For engaging enemies at a distance, pre-colonial Filipinos used various projectile weapons.

Bow and Arrow (Busog at Pana): Found in many parts of the archipelago, used for hunting and warfare. Arrows could be tipped with poison.
Lantaka: A small, swivel-gun cannon made of bronze or brass, particularly used by the sultanates in Mindanao and Sulu on their warships and fortifications. These were effective anti-personnel and anti-ship weapons.
Blowguns (Sumpit): Used by some indigenous groups, often with poisoned darts, effective for silent attacks.

Armor and Shields

While full body armor was less common than in some other parts of the world, various forms of protection were utilized.

Shields (Kalásag): Large, often ornate wooden shields used to block blows and projectiles. Designs varied regionally.
Armor: Some groups used armor made from materials like carabao hide, wood, or even braided plant fibers (Barote). The Moro people were known for their more extensive armor, sometimes incorporating metal plates or chainmail, reflecting influences from further west. Head coverings or helmets, sometimes made of cane or metal, were also used.

The combination of effective bladed weapons, projectile capabilities, and defensive gear made pre-colonial Filipino warriors formidable opponents in their native environment.

Table: Examples of Pre-Colonial Filipino Weaponry

Weapon Type	Examples (Regional)	Description	Usage
Blades	Kris (Mindanao/Sulu), Kampilan (Mindanao), Barong (Sulu), Bolo/Itak (Various), Balarao (Various)	Varied daggers and swords, often single-edged or wavy.	Close-quarters combat, dueling.
Projectiles	Bow and Arrow (Various), Lantaka (Mindanao/Sulu), Sumpit (Various)	Ranged weapons from simple bows to small cannons.	Ranged combat, sieges (Lantaka), hunting, ambush.
Defenses	Kalásag (Various), Barote (Luzon), Hide/Wood Armor (Various), Metal Armor (Mindanao)	Shields and various forms of body protection.	Blocking attacks, defense against projectiles.

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Regional Variations in Warfare

The diverse geography and cultures of the Pre-Colonial Philippines led to distinct regional variations in warfare practices.

Northern Luzon (Igorot resistance and mountain warfare)

The mountainous terrain of the Cordillera region provided a natural stronghold for groups like the Igorot peoples. Their warfare was heavily adapted to this environment. They were skilled in mountain warfare, utilizing trails, cliffs, and dense forests for defense and ambush. Their tactics focused on repelling invaders through ambushes, raids on supply lines, and utilizing their deep knowledge of the complex terrain. The Igorot resistance against both lowland neighbors and later Spanish incursions was characterized by a fierce independence and mastery of defensive strategies in the highlands. While not always large-scale, their persistent resistance demonstrated effective small-unit tactics leveraging their geographical advantage.

Visayas (Fierce warriors, raiding culture)

The Visayan islands were known for their seafaring culture and the martial prowess of their warriors. The Timawa were particularly celebrated for their fighting skills. Raid tactics (mangayaw) were a central feature of Visayan warfare, involving swift maritime expeditions to other islands or coastal communities for plunder and captives. Their warships, the karakoa, were formidable vessels capable of rapid movement. While they also engaged in land battles, their mastery of naval warfare and raiding was a defining characteristic. Accounts from the Spanish provide glimpses into the ferocity of Visayan warriors and their complex social structure tied to military service.

Mindanao (Sultanates, fortifications, prolonged resistance)

Mindanao, particularly the areas under the influence of the Sultanates of Mindanao, presented a different scale of indigenous military organization. The sultanates, with their more centralized authority and larger populations, could field larger armies and maintain more substantial Fortifications (kuta). Their warfare involved both land and sea engagements. The Moro people were renowned for their fierce resistance to foreign intrusion, a resistance that would continue well into the American colonial period. Their use of the kris, kampilan, and lantaka, combined with well-defended kuta, made them formidable opponents capable of sustaining prolonged conflicts. The conflict in Mindanao was often larger in scale and longer-lasting than inter-barangay disputes elsewhere, representing a significant force in Indigenous Filipino Warfare.

Early Encounters and Resistance (The First Wave)

The arrival of Europeans marked a significant turning point, pitting indigenous warfare tactics against foreign military technology and organization. The initial encounters provide crucial case studies in pre-colonial resistance.

The Battle of Mactan

The most famous early instance of indigenous resistance is the Battle of Mactan on April 27, 1521. Ferdinand Magellan, seeking to assert Spanish authority after forging an alliance with Rajah Humabon of Cebu, attempted to subdue Lapulapu, the Datu of Mactan, who refused to submit.

Lapulapu and his warriors, likely a mix of Mactan’s inhabitants and possibly allies, faced Magellan’s landing force. While Magellan had firearms and armor, Lapulapu’s men possessed superior numbers and, crucially, the advantage of fighting on their own ground. They also understood Magellan’s limitations.

Key aspects of the Battle of Mactan demonstrating pre-colonial tactics include:

Terrain Advantage: The battle took place on a shallow coral reef, preventing Magellan’s boats from reaching the shore and forcing his men to wade through the water, hindering their movement and exposing them.
Overwhelming Numbers: While Spanish accounts vary, Lapulapu likely fielded a much larger force than Magellan’s landing party.
Targeted Attack: Lapulapu’s warriors focused their attacks on the unarmored parts of the Spaniards’ bodies and targeted Magellan specifically, recognizing his leadership role.
Use of Native Weaponry: Blades and spears, despite their simplicity compared to European steel and firearms, were used effectively in close combat against the hampered Spanish.

The outcome was a decisive victory for Lapulapu, resulting in Magellan’s death and the temporary retreat of the Spanish. The Battle of Mactan stands as an iconic example of how Indigenous Filipino Warfare tactics, particularly utilizing Terrain advantage, numbers, and targeted attacks with Native weaponry, could overcome technologically superior forces in a familiar environment. It is a foundational event in Philippine history, symbolizing resistance against foreign intrusion.

Resistance in Maynila

Decades after Magellan’s failed expedition, the Spanish, under Miguel López de Legazpi, began a more concerted effort to colonize the archipelago. Their push north led them to the prosperous settlements around the mouth of the Pasig River, collectively known as Maynila. The Kingdom of Maynila was led by Rajah Sulayman (or Soliman), a young ruler, and his uncle, Lakandula.

Initial encounters in 1570 saw the Spanish, led by Martín de Goiti, engage the forces of Maynila. While the Spanish eventually managed to take the settlement, Filipino warriors put up a fierce resistance, utilizing their Fortifications (kuta) and fighting with their traditional weapons. The Spanish noted the use of cannons (lantaka) by the defenders.

Despite the eventual Spanish establishment of Manila in 1571, resistance continued. Rajah Sulayman reportedly led a rebellion against the Spanish later that year in the Battle of Bankusay Channel, attempting to drive them out. This resistance, though ultimately unsuccessful in expelling the Spanish permanently from Maynila at that time, highlights the indigenous willingness and capacity to fight against the encroaching colonial power, utilizing their existing military structures and tactics in increasingly desperate circumstances. The early conflicts around the Kingdom of Maynila demonstrated that even more organized indigenous polities would resort to intense fighting to defend their sovereignty.

Table: Early Encounters Timeline (Illustrating Indigenous Resistance)

Date	Event	Location	Key Figures Involved	Indigenous Tactics Displayed	Outcome
Apr 27, 1521	Battle of Mactan	Mactan, Cebu	Lapulapu, Ferdinand Magellan	Terrain advantage, Numbers, Targeted attacks	Magellan defeated, Spanish temporarily repelled.
May 1570	Battle of Maynila (Initial)	Maynila (Pasig River)	Rajah Sulayman, Martín de Goiti	Fortifications (kuta), Native weaponry	Spanish briefly take settlement, then withdraw.
Jun 1571	Battle of Bankusay Channel	Bankusay Channel, Maynila	Rajah Sulayman, Miguel López de Legazpi	Naval resistance, Native weaponry	Indigenous forces defeated, Spanish control of Maynila solidified.

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The Legacy of Pre-Colonial Warfare

The Indigenous Filipino Warfare practices of the pre-colonial era did not disappear with the onset of Spanish colonization. They evolved and adapted, forming the basis for subsequent centuries of resistance movements.

Influence on Later Resistance Movements

The tactics of Philippine Pre-Colonial Guerrilla Warfare – the use of ambush, hit-and-run, deep knowledge of local terrain, and reliance on local support – became hallmarks of Filipino resistance throughout the colonial period, against the Spanish, Americans, and Japanese. Figures like Diego Silang, Andres Bonifacio (Katipunan), Emilio Aguinaldo, and later guerrilla leaders drew upon a long history of irregular warfare. The ability to melt into the jungle or mountains, utilize small units, and harass larger, less mobile enemy forces was a direct descendant of pre-colonial military traditions. Even the fierce, prolonged resistance of the Moro people in Mindanao against multiple colonial powers can be traced back to the sophisticated warfare practices of the Sultanates of Mindanao.

Understanding Indigenous Military Acumen

Studying Philippine Pre-Colonial Guerrilla Warfare is vital for a complete understanding of Philippine history. It challenges the notion of indigenous peoples as passive recipients of foreign influence and instead highlights their agency, strategic thinking, and martial capabilities. The achievements of figures like Lapulapu demonstrate that effective military responses were mounted against external threats, utilizing the resources and knowledge available to them. The diversity of approaches across different regions – from the Igorot resistance in the mountains to the maritime prowess of Visayan warriors and the fortified strength of the Sultanates of Mindanao – underscores the adaptability and ingenuity of pre-colonial Filipino societies in matters of defense and conflict. Sources like the Boxer Codex and the accounts of early chroniclers, while often biased, provide glimpses into these rich martial traditions, contributing to our understanding of Austronesian warfare in the archipelago.

The foundational principles of utilizing the Terrain advantage, employing effective Raid tactics and Ambush strategies, mastering the use of Native weaponry, and constructing defensive Fortifications (kuta) were critical skills honed in the inter-barangay conflicts of the Pre-Colonial Philippines. These skills proved invaluable when facing the unprecedented challenge of foreign invasion, demonstrating a long-standing tradition of resilience and military adaptability that is deeply woven into the fabric of Filipino identity and Philippine history. The spirit of resistance embodied by warriors, Datu, and communities from the smallest barangay to the largest sultanate, fighting to protect their way of life in the Pre-Hispanic Philippines, is a testament to their enduring legacy.

Key Takeaways:

Philippine Pre-Colonial Guerrilla Warfare was characterized by irregular tactics adapted to the diverse archipelago.
Conflict was common in the Pre-Colonial Philippines, driven by raiding, resources, honor, and dominance.
Societies ranged from independent barangays led by Datu to larger Sultanates of Mindanao, each with distinct military structures.
Key tactics included utilizing Terrain advantage, Ambush, Raid tactics (mangayaw), and building Fortifications (kuta).
Native weaponry such as the kris, kampilan, bolo, spears, and Lantaka were crucial tools of war.
Regional variations existed, from Igorot resistance in the mountains to the naval prowess of Visayan warriors.
Early encounters like the Battle of Mactan and resistance in the Kingdom of Maynila demonstrated the effectiveness of indigenous tactics against early European forces.
Pre-colonial martial traditions significantly influenced later Filipino resistance movements throughout Philippine history.
Sources like the Boxer Codex provide insights into these historical practices.
Austronesian warfare principles were evident in the archipelago’s military traditions.
Understanding Indigenous Filipino Warfare is key to appreciating the resilience of the people in the Pre-Hispanic Philippines.
Lumad peoples also had their unique warfare practices adapted to their environments.
Rajah Sulayman played a key role in the defense of Maynila.
The concept of Philippine history as a continuous narrative of adaptation and resistance is underscored by these pre-colonial foundations.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):

Q1: Did pre-colonial Filipinos have a unified army? A1: No, the Pre-Colonial Philippines was politically fragmented. Warfare was typically conducted by independent barangays or confederations led by a Datu, or by the more organized forces of the Sultanates of Mindanao. There was no single, unified Filipino army encompassing the entire archipelago.

Q2: What were the main goals of warfare in the pre-colonial era? A2: Goals varied, but common objectives included acquiring resources (land, trade routes), gaining prestige, taking revenge for grievances, and capturing individuals for slavery. Raiding (mangayaw), particularly among Visayan warriors, was often focused on wealth and slave acquisition.

Q3: How did the terrain influence pre-colonial warfare? A3: The diverse terrain was crucial. Dense jungles and mountains provided cover for Ambush and retreat (Terrain advantage), while coastlines and rivers were used for swift movement and Raid tactics using watercraft like the karakoa. Fortifications (kuta) were often built in strategically defensible locations.

Q4: What were some notable weapons used? A4: Key Native weaponry included various blades like the kris, kampilan, and bolo; projectile weapons such as the bow and arrow and the Lantaka (small cannon); and defensive gear like wooden shields (Kalásag) and armor made from materials like hide or wood (Barote). The Boxer Codex illustrates many of these.

Q5: How significant was the Battle of Mactan? A5: The Battle of Mactan is highly significant as it was the first documented large-scale resistance against European intrusion and resulted in the death of Ferdinand Magellan. It demonstrated the effectiveness of Indigenous Filipino Warfare tactics in defeating a technologically superior force and became a powerful symbol of Filipino resistance in Philippine history. Lapulapu is celebrated as a national hero for his role.

Q6: Did indigenous warfare tactics influence later resistance against colonizers? A6: Yes, significantly. The core tactics of utilizing the environment, employing irregular forces, relying on local support, and using hit-and-run strategies, honed in the Pre-Colonial Philippines, became fundamental to Filipino resistance movements throughout centuries of colonial rule, from early revolts to the guerrilla warfare of the 20th century. The Igorot resistance and the long struggle of the Sultanates of Mindanao are prime examples of this continuity. Understanding Austronesian warfare principles as practiced in the archipelago provides this historical link.

Sources:

Scott, William Henry. Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society. Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994. (A foundational text on pre-colonial Philippine society, including warfare).
Warren, James Francis. The Sulu Zone, 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State. Singapore University Press, 1981. (Provides context on the warfare and raiding practices of the Sulu Sultanate).
Casal, Gabriel S., et al. The People and Art of the Philippines. Museum of Cultural History, University of California, Los Angeles, 1981. (Contains information and illustrations related to pre-colonial life, including weaponry, potentially referencing the Boxer Codex).
Chirino, Pedro. Relación de las Islas Filipinas (Relation of the Philippine Islands). English translation available. (Early Spanish account providing descriptions of indigenous life and practices, including warfare).
Plasencia, Juan de. Customs of the Tagalogs. Available in various historical collections. (Another early Spanish account detailing the social structures, including those related to warfare, of the Tagalogs near the Kingdom of Maynila).
Blair, Emma Helen, and James Alexander Robertson, eds. The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898. 55 vols. Arthur H. Clark Company, 1903-1909. (A massive compilation of primary source documents, including accounts of early encounters and indigenous practices, which can provide details on Indigenous Filipino Warfare, Native weaponry, Fortifications (kuta), and the roles of figures like Lapulapu and Rajah Sulayman. References to the Boxer Codex and descriptions of Visayan warriors and Austronesian warfare tactics can be found within).

(Note: Specific academic papers focusing solely on “Pre-Colonial Philippine Guerrilla Warfare” as a defined topic are scarce due to the nuance of the term before colonial occupation. The sources listed provide the essential context on pre-colonial societies, conflict, and military practices from which the elements of irregular/guerrilla-like tactics are derived and understood. Further research into specific regional ethnographies can provide more detailed accounts of the warfare practices of groups like the Igorot, Lumad peoples, and the Sultanates of Mindanao.)

Category: Pre-Colonial (900–1560)