The story of the Philippines’ journey from Spanish colony to an independent nation is rich with figures who dedicated their lives to freedom. Among the most prominent is Emilio Aguinaldo, a man whose path led him from the battlefields of the Philippine Revolution against Spain to the presidential seat of the nascent republic, and then through the complexities of the Philippine-American War. His life spanned a period of monumental change and conflict in Philippine history, marking him as a central, though often controversial, figure.
Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy was born on March 22, 1869, in Kawit, Cavite, a province that would become a hotbed of revolutionary activity. He came from a relatively prosperous family, his father having served as a gobernadorcillo (municipal mayor). Young Emilio received a decent education, initially in Biñan, Laguna, and later at the College of San Juan de Letran in Manila, though he did not complete his studies there. He returned to Kawit and, like his father, became involved in local administration, eventually being elected gobernadorcillo in 1895. This early exposure to governance would prove significant for his later role as a national leader.
Cavite in the late 19th century was a place simmering with discontent under Spanish rule. Years of colonial policies, land disputes, and a growing sense of national identity fueled the desire for change. It was in this environment that secret societies advocating for reform or revolution began to gain traction.
The Fire of Revolution: Aguinaldo and the Katipunan
The most famous of these societies was the Kataas-taasang, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Supreme and Venerable Association of the Children of the Nation), or the Katipunan, founded by Andres Bonifacio. The Katipunan sought complete separation from Spain through armed revolution.
Emilio Aguinaldo joined the Katipunan in 1895, adopting the nom de guerre “Magdalo” after Saint Mary Magdalene, his town’s patroness. This name also became the name of the Katipunan council in his area of Cavite, which he led. The other major Katipunan council in Cavite was the Magdiwang council. The province, due to its proximity to Manila and a strong network of revolutionaries, quickly became one of the main fronts of the Philippine Revolution, which officially began in August 1896.
Early Victories in Cavite
Aguinaldo proved to be a remarkably successful military commander. While Bonifacio faced difficulties in capturing Manila, Aguinaldo and the Caviteño revolutionaries achieved significant victories against Spanish forces in their province. Within months of the revolution’s outbreak, they had liberated much of Cavite. Aguinaldo’s leadership and strategic successes quickly earned him renown and respect among the revolutionaries, elevating his status within the movement.
These early victories highlighted a divide that was emerging within the Katipunan, particularly between the Magdalo and Magdiwang factions in Cavite and Bonifacio, who was recognized as the Supremo or leader of the entire Katipunan. The differing levels of military success and leadership styles contributed to tensions and disagreements over the direction of the revolution and the structure of its leadership.
The Tejeros Convention and the Bonifacio Incident
As the revolution progressed, the leaders recognized the need to consolidate their forces and establish a unified revolutionary government. This led to the Tejeros Convention, held on March 22, 1897 (Aguinaldo’s 28th birthday), in Tejeros, Cavite. The convention’s goal was to elect officials for the newly formed Philippine Republic.
The proceedings were contentious. Disagreements arose between the Magdalo and Magdiwang factions, as well as regarding the role of Andres Bonifacio, who presided over the assembly. When the election results were announced, Aguinaldo was elected President, despite being absent (he was fighting Spanish forces). Bonifacio was elected Director of the Interior.
Daniel Tirona, a Magdalo representative, questioned Bonifacio’s qualification for the position of Director of the Interior, citing that a lawyer should hold that post. Bonifacio, as the Supremo of the Katipunan and the presiding officer, felt insulted by this public challenge to his authority and dignity. Citing his authority as the leader of the assembly, he declared the proceedings null and void.
This act deepened the rift within the revolutionary leadership. Aguinaldo, informed of his election, took the oath of office separately. Bonifacio and his followers refused to recognize the results of the Tejeros Convention or the new government, believing the election was illegitimate and rigged by the Caviteño elite.
Following the convention, tensions escalated. Bonifacio and his loyalists retreated. Aguinaldo, now recognized by a significant faction as the President, ordered the arrest of Bonifacio and his brother Procopio on charges of sedition and treason. They were apprehended, tried by a military court composed mostly of Aguinaldo’s men, found guilty, and sentenced to death. Despite Aguinaldo initially commuting the sentence, pressure from his officers led him to confirm the execution order. Andres and Procopio Bonifacio were executed on May 10, 1897, in the mountains of Maragondon, Cavite.
The execution of Bonifacio remains one of the most tragic and controversial episodes in Philippine history. It consolidated Aguinaldo’s power as the undisputed leader of the revolution but also created a lasting division among historical interpretations of his leadership and the revolution itself. It is seen by some as a necessary action to maintain unity and discipline during a critical time, while others view it as a political assassination to remove a rival.
The Republic of Biak-na-Bato and Exile
Despite Aguinaldo’s leadership, the revolutionary government faced immense pressure from Spanish forces, who were launching offensives to regain control of Cavite and other rebel strongholds. The revolutionaries were forced to retreat to the mountains of Biak-na-Bato in San Miguel, Bulacan.
Here, Aguinaldo established the Republic of Biak-na-Bato in November 1897 and promulgated a constitution, though it was largely a copy of the Cuban Constitution. The republic declared its aim as the separation of the Philippines from the Spanish monarchy and the formation of an independent state.
However, military stalemate and internal exhaustion set in on both sides. Neither the Spanish nor the revolutionaries could achieve a decisive victory. Recognizing the impasse, both parties entered into negotiations mediated by Pedro Paterno, a prominent Filipino intellectual.
These negotiations resulted in the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, signed in December 1897. The agreement included several provisions:
- Aguinaldo and other revolutionary leaders would go into voluntary exile, primarily to Hong Kong.
- The Spanish government would pay a sum of 800,000 Mexican pesos in three installments to the revolutionaries in exchange for the surrender of arms and the end of the revolution.
- Spain would implement promised reforms.
Aguinaldo and about 30 other leaders departed for Hong Kong in late December 1897. While in exile, Aguinaldo used the initial payments from the Spanish government to purchase arms, anticipating that the pact’s promise of reforms might not be fulfilled and that the struggle might continue.
The Pact of Biak-na-Bato provided a temporary cessation of hostilities, but it did not bring lasting peace. The promised reforms were not fully implemented, and some revolutionary groups continued to resist. The Spanish government, meanwhile, was facing increasing international pressure and internal instability, particularly as tensions rose with the United States.
The Return and the Declaration of Independence
The geopolitical landscape dramatically changed with the outbreak of the Spanish-American War in April 1898. The United States, supporting Cuba’s struggle for independence, declared war on Spain. The conflict quickly extended to the Philippines, a Spanish colony.
Commodore George Dewey led the U.S. Asiatic Squadron into Manila Bay and decisively defeated the Spanish fleet on May 1, 1898. This swift victory effectively neutralized Spanish naval power in the Pacific and isolated the Spanish forces in the Philippines.
Seeing an opportunity to revive the revolution with potential American support, the American consul in Singapore, E. Spencer Pratt, and the American consul in Hong Kong, Rounseville Wildman, met with Aguinaldo. They discussed the possibility of Aguinaldo returning to the Philippines to rally the Filipino forces against Spain alongside the Americans. Aguinaldo was led to believe that the Americans supported Philippine independence, although the specifics of any agreement remain a subject of historical debate.
Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines on May 19, 1898, aboard the American vessel USS McCulloch. He quickly rallied Filipino revolutionaries, who, invigorated by his return and the presence of the Americans, resumed hostilities against the Spanish. Filipino forces achieved rapid successes, liberating town after town across Luzon and other islands. They surrounded Manila, trapping the Spanish forces within the city.
Confident in the revolution’s progress and believing independence was within reach, Aguinaldo, upon the advice of his advisors, particularly Apolinario Mabini, decided to formally declare the independence of the Philippines. This momentous event occurred on June 12, 1898, at his ancestral home in Kawit, Cavite.
The Act of the Declaration of Philippine Independence was read publicly. It proclaimed the sovereignty and independence of the Philippine Islands from Spanish colonial rule. The Philippine flag, designed by Marcela Agoncillo, Lorenza Agoncillo, and Delfina Herbosa de Natividad, was unfurled for the first time, and the Marcha Nacional Filipina, the Philippine national anthem (later set to lyrics), was played.
This declaration was a crucial step in establishing the Filipino nation-state. It asserted the Filipino people’s right to self-determination and announced the birth of a new republic to the world. While the declaration was primarily a political act intended to inspire further resistance and gain international recognition, it marked the formal end of the revolution against Spain and the birth of the First Philippine Republic.
The First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic)
Following the declaration of independence, it became necessary to establish a more formal government structure. Aguinaldo convened the Malolos Congress in Malolos, Bulacan, on September 15, 1898. This assembly, composed of delegates elected or appointed from provinces under Filipino control, was tasked with drafting a constitution for the new republic.
The Malolos Congress was a significant gathering of Filipino intellectuals, lawyers, and prominent citizens. It debated crucial issues concerning the form of government, the relationship between church and state, and the rights of citizens.
The Malolos Constitution
After extensive deliberation, the Malolos Congress approved a constitution on January 20, 1899. Known as the Malolos Constitution, it was promulgated by Aguinaldo the following day. Key features of the Malolos Constitution included:
- It established a popular, representative, and unitary republic.
- Sovereignty resided in the people.
- It included a comprehensive Bill of Rights guaranteeing civil liberties.
- It created a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, with the legislature holding significant authority.
- It initially declared Catholicism as the state religion but was later amended to provide for separation of church and state.
On January 23, 1899, the First Philippine Republic was formally inaugurated in Malolos. Emilio Aguinaldo was sworn in as its first President. This republic was the first constitutional republic in Asia. Its establishment demonstrated the Filipino people’s capacity for self-governance and their determination to be a free and independent nation.
The government under the Malolos Republic quickly set up various departments, including foreign affairs, interior, finance, war, justice, agriculture, and industry. It also established a university, the Literary University of the Philippines, and schools. It sought diplomatic recognition from foreign powers, although none were formally extended.
Here is a brief overview of some key positions in the First Philippine Republic Government:
| Position | Key Individuals | Role |
|---|---|---|
| President | Emilio Aguinaldo | Head of State and Government |
| Prime Minister | Apolinario Mabini (later Pedro Paterno) | Chief Advisor to the President, Head of the Cabinet |
| Secretary of Foreign Affairs | Apolinario Mabini (later Felipe Buencamino) | Handled diplomatic relations and sought international recognition |
| Secretary of Interior | Teodoro Sandiko (later Severino de las Alas) | Oversaw local government and domestic affairs |
| Secretary of War | Baldomero Aguinaldo (later Mariano Trías, others) | Commander of the armed forces |
| Secretary of Finance | Mariano Trías (later Hugo Ilagan, others) | Managed the republic’s treasury and finances |
| President of Congress | Pedro Paterno | Presided over the Malolos Congress (legislative body) |
| Chief Justice | Cayetano Arellano (Appointed, did not serve) | Head of the proposed Supreme Court (Judicial branch, not fully functional) |
The Malolos Republic was a remarkable achievement, creating a functioning government structure and legal framework in the midst of a revolution and the looming threat of a new conflict. It represented the culmination of years of struggle and aspiration for self-rule.
However, the republic faced enormous challenges. Its authority was primarily limited to areas under Filipino control, and its resources were scarce. Crucially, it did not have the recognition or support of the global powers. And a new threat was rapidly emerging: the United States.
The Philippine-American War
While the Filipinos were celebrating their independence and establishing their republic, the relationship with their former allies, the Americans, was deteriorating. Filipino leaders like Aguinaldo had initially viewed the Americans as liberators, believing they would help the Philippines gain independence. However, it became increasingly clear that the U.S. had its own intentions for the archipelago.
The Spanish-American War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. In this treaty, Spain ceded control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the United States. Crucially, for a payment of $20 million, Spain also ceded the Philippines to the United States.
This transfer of sovereignty, made without the consent or participation of the Filipino people or their government, was a betrayal in the eyes of Aguinaldo and the First Republic. It dashed their hopes for independence and set the stage for a new conflict.
Tensions between Filipino and American forces, who were both occupying areas around Manila, grew steadily in the weeks following the treaty. Despite efforts to avoid confrontation, a clash became almost inevitable.
The Philippine-American War (often referred to by Americans as the Philippine Insurrection) officially began on February 4, 1899, just two days before the U.S. Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris. A Filipino soldier was shot by an American sentry in Santa Mesa, Manila. This incident quickly escalated into full-scale fighting.
Aguinaldo, now President of the First Republic and Commander-in-Chief of the Filipino forces, found himself leading his people in a new war, this time against a powerful modern nation.
Fighting the New Occupier
The initial phase of the war (February 1899 – late 1899) saw conventional warfare. The American forces, better armed, trained, and supplied, were generally victorious in pitched battles. They captured key towns, including Malolos, the capital of the Republic, forcing Aguinaldo and his government to relocate multiple times.
The Filipino forces, under commanders like Antonio Luna (who was later tragically assassinated), put up fierce resistance but suffered heavy casualties. The Americans pursued a strategy of capturing strategic locations and trying to force a decisive engagement.
As the American military superiority became evident, the Filipino strategy shifted towards guerrilla warfare around late 1899 and early 1900. Filipino units broke into smaller, mobile groups that conducted ambushes, raids, and harassment operations against American patrols and garrisons. This phase of the war was brutal and protracted.
The American strategy also adapted. They implemented counter-insurgency tactics, including the establishment of fortified zones, population control, and search-and-destroy missions. The war became increasingly costly in terms of lives and resources for both sides.
Aguinaldo’s Presidency During Wartime
As President during the war, Aguinaldo faced immense pressure. He was the political and military leader of a beleaguered republic fighting for its survival. His government continued to function as best as it could under wartime conditions, issuing decrees and attempting to maintain administration in areas still under its control.
However, the strains of war took their toll. Internal disagreements arose among Filipino leaders regarding strategy, and the loss of prominent figures like Luna weakened the military command. The constant need to evade capture meant Aguinaldo was often on the move, making centralized command difficult.
In a desperate attempt to reach Aguinaldo and end the war, American General Frederick Funston organized a daring expedition in March 1901. Using captured Filipino scouts (Macabebe Scouts) disguised as prisoners, Funston’s force trekked through enemy territory to Palanan, Isabela, where Aguinaldo had established his headquarters.
The ruse was successful. On March 23, 1901, Funston and his men captured Emilio Aguinaldo. His capture was a major blow to the Filipino resistance.
Capture and the Oath of Allegiance
Aguinaldo was brought to Manila. After some time, and facing the reality of his capture and the ongoing conflict, he issued a proclamation on April 19, 1901, calling on his countrymen to lay down their arms and accept American sovereignty. He also took an oath of allegiance to the United States.
His capture and proclamation did not immediately end the war, as resistance continued in various parts of the archipelago under different leaders. However, it significantly weakened the organized resistance and marked a turning point in the conflict. The war officially ended in 1902, though sporadic resistance and conflicts continued for several more years, particularly in the southern Philippines.
Aguinaldo’s decision to surrender and pledge allegiance to the U.S. was another controversial moment in his life. Supporters saw it as a pragmatic move to end bloodshed and suffering, while critics viewed it as a capitulation that betrayed the cause of independence.
Post-Presidency Life
After taking his oath of allegiance, Emilio Aguinaldo lived under American rule for many years. He largely retired from public life initially, though he continued to advocate for Filipino welfare and self-governance within the framework of the American colonial system.
He ran for President in the 1935 elections against Manuel L. Quezon under the newly established Commonwealth of the Philippines, which was designed as a transitional government towards full independence. Aguinaldo lost the election, securing only a minority of the votes. This marked his return to the political arena after decades but also showed that his direct political influence had diminished compared to the new generation of leaders.
During the Japanese Occupation of the Philippines in World War II (1941-1945), Aguinaldo faced another challenging situation. He made some controversial actions, including a radio appeal calling for the surrender of General Douglas MacArthur and the American forces in Bataan. He later claimed he acted under duress. This period remains a difficult part of his legacy.
After the war, when the Philippines finally gained full independence from the United States on July 4, 1946, Aguinaldo was a respected, albeit complex, elder statesman. He lived to see the nation for which he had fought so hard finally achieve its independence, though under circumstances vastly different from the republic he had once led.
He was appointed by President Elpidio Quirino to the Council of State in 1950, his last significant role in public life. He dedicated his later years to promoting nationalism, historical preservation, and veterans’ welfare.
Legacy and Death
Emilio Aguinaldo died on February 6, 1964, at the age of 94. He passed away at the Veterans Memorial Hospital in Quezon City from coronary thrombosis. His death marked the end of an era, as he was one of the last surviving major figures of the Philippine Revolution and the First Republic. He was buried at the Aguinaldo Shrine in Kawit, Cavite.
The legacy of Emilio Aguinaldo is multifaceted and often debated by historians and Filipinos.
- His Contributions: He was undoubtedly a brilliant military leader in the early stages of the revolution against Spain. He played a crucial role in organizing the revolutionary forces, declaring independence, and establishing the First Philippine Republic, the first in Asia. These were monumental achievements that laid the groundwork for Philippine nationhood.
- Controversies: The execution of Andres Bonifacio and the circumstances surrounding it remain a significant stain on his record. His role and actions during the Philippine-American War, including his capture and oath of allegiance, are subjects of critical analysis. His activities during World War II are also viewed negatively by many.
- Symbolism: Despite the controversies, Aguinaldo remains a symbol of the Philippine Revolution and the struggle for independence. He is recognized as the first President of the Philippines.
Historians offer various perspectives on his leadership. Some emphasize the challenging circumstances he faced – leading a young nation through two wars against global powers with limited resources and internal divisions. Others focus on his decisions, such as the handling of Bonifacio and Luna, viewing them as detrimental to the revolutionary cause.
Ultimately, understanding Emilio Aguinaldo requires looking at the complex and turbulent times in which he lived and the difficult choices leaders had to make. His life story is inextricably linked to the birth pangs of the Filipino nation.
Key Takeaways:
- Emilio Aguinaldo was a key military and political leader in the Philippine Revolution against Spain and the first President of the First Philippine Republic.
- He rose to prominence through early military successes in Cavite.
- His election as President at the Tejeros Convention led to a fatal conflict with Andres Bonifacio.
- After a period of exile under the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, he returned during the Spanish-American War.
- He declared Philippine independence on June 12, 1898, and later led the First Philippine Republic with the Malolos Constitution.
- His government fought against the United States in the Philippine-American War after the U.S. acquired the Philippines from Spain.
- He was captured in 1901, ending his active role in the war but not ending resistance entirely.
- His post-presidency life included attempts at political participation and controversial actions during World War II.
- His legacy is debated, acknowledging his crucial role in founding the nation while also scrutinizing controversial decisions.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):
- Was Emilio Aguinaldo the first President of the Philippines or the first President of the Republic? He is considered the first President of the Philippine Republic, specifically the First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic). The Philippines has had several republics since, but he holds the distinction of leading the first one established during the revolutionary period.
- Why is Andres Bonifacio’s death linked to Emilio Aguinaldo? Aguinaldo ordered the execution of Andres and Procopio Bonifacio after they were found guilty of sedition and treason by a military court formed by Aguinaldo’s faction following the Tejeros Convention dispute.
- What was the significance of the Malolos Republic? The Malolos Republic was the first constitutional republic in Asia. Its establishment and constitution demonstrated the Filipino people’s readiness for self-governance and their aspiration for a truly independent nation.
- How did Emilio Aguinaldo’s view of the Americans change? Initially, Aguinaldo viewed the Americans as potential allies who would help the Philippines gain independence from Spain. However, after the Treaty of Paris ceded the Philippines to the U.S., his view changed dramatically, leading him to lead the fight against American occupation.
- Did Aguinaldo fight in the Philippine-American War until the end? No, he was captured by American forces in Palanan, Isabela, in March 1901. His capture weakened the organized resistance, though fighting continued for some time.
- What happened to Emilio Aguinaldo after his capture? After taking an oath of allegiance to the United States, he lived under American rule. He participated in politics again in 1935 but lost the presidential election. He lived a long life and saw the Philippines achieve full independence in 1946.
Conclusion
Emilio Aguinaldo’s life is a microcosm of the tumultuous transition of the Philippines from a Spanish colony to an independent nation. From leading daring assaults against Spanish strongholds in Cavite as a young revolutionary, to standing as the first President of a fledgling republic, and then facing the overwhelming might of a new colonial power, Aguinaldo was at the forefront of Philippine history during its most formative years.
His leadership was marked by both triumphs, such as the declaration of independence and the establishment of the Malolos Republic, and profound controversies, particularly the events surrounding Andres Bonifacio and the complexities of the Philippine-American War. These actions have shaped historical narratives and continue to be debated today.
Despite the differing perspectives on his legacy, Emilio Aguinaldo remains an undeniable central figure in the narrative of Philippine independence. His journey from a revolutionary leader dreaming of freedom to the President who saw that dream materialize, only to face new challenges, is a testament to the enduring struggle and sacrifices involved in nation-building. His life story serves as a vital chapter in understanding the origins and complexities of the modern Filipino state.