The First Philippine Republic holds a special place in the history of the Philippines. It was the very first time Filipinos attempted to establish a truly independent government for their nation, breaking free from centuries of foreign rule. Often called the Malolos Republic because its capital was in Malolos, Bulacan, this republic was a crucial step in the long journey towards Philippine sovereignty. This guide will take you through the history of this groundbreaking government, explaining how it came to be, what it tried to achieve, and why it ultimately faced challenges that led to its decline.
Understanding the First Philippine Republic is key to understanding the Filipino identity and the nation’s enduring desire for self-determination. It wasn’t just a government; it was a powerful symbol of hope, unity, and the determination of a people to govern themselves.
The Road to the First Republic: Seeds of Revolution
To truly understand the First Philippine Republic, we need to look at the conditions that led to its birth. For over 300 years, the Philippines was a colony of Spain. This long period of foreign control led to many problems and injustices, including unfair taxation, abuse by Spanish officials and clergy, and a lack of basic rights for Filipinos.
By the late 19th century, a strong sense of Filipino identity and a desire for reform and independence had grown. This period saw the rise of Filipino intellectuals, known as ilustrados, who initially advocated for reforms within the Spanish system. Figures like Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano López Jaena used their writings to expose the abuses of Spanish rule and call for political and social changes. Their reform movement, however, largely failed to convince Spain to make meaningful concessions.
The failure of the reform movement led to a more radical approach: revolution. Andrés Bonifacio, a commoner who was deeply affected by the injustices he saw, founded the Katipunan in 1892. The Katipunan was a secret revolutionary society aimed at achieving independence from Spain through armed revolt. Its members came from all walks of life, reflecting a broader base of support for independence than the reform movement.
The existence of the Katipunan was discovered by Spanish authorities in 1896, triggering the Philippine Revolution. What started as scattered uprisings quickly spread across many provinces, especially in Luzon. The revolution saw fierce fighting between Filipino revolutionaries and Spanish forces.
Early Attempts at Revolutionary Government
Even before the First Philippine Republic was formally established, Filipino revolutionaries recognized the need for a governing body to lead the struggle and eventually administer a free Philippines.
- Tejeros Convention (March 1897): This meeting was held to unify the revolutionary factions and establish a single government. However, it was marked by disagreements and controversy, particularly between the Magdalo faction (led by Emilio Aguinaldo) and the Magdiwang faction (associated with Andrés Bonifacio). Aguinaldo was elected President, but Bonifacio, feeling betrayed by the proceedings, refused to recognize the results. This led to a tragic rift, resulting in Bonifacio’s arrest and execution shortly after. The Tejeros Convention represented a key moment in the early political struggles within the revolution.
- Republic of Biak-na-Bato (November 1897): Following setbacks in the revolution, Emilio Aguinaldo and his forces retreated to Biak-na-Bato in Bulacan. A provisional constitution, based on the Cuban Constitution, was drafted, establishing the Republic of Biak-na-Bato. This government was short-lived. In December 1897, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato was signed between the Spanish colonial government and Aguinaldo’s revolutionary forces. Under the pact, Aguinaldo and other revolutionary leaders agreed to go into exile in Hong Kong in exchange for a monetary indemnity and promised reforms from Spain. The republic dissolved.
The Pact of Biak-na-Bato did not bring lasting peace. Spain did not fully implement the promised reforms, and many Filipinos remained suspicious. The Spanish government also failed to pay the full amount agreed upon. While Aguinaldo and his companions were in exile, revolutionary activities continued in the Philippines, proving that the desire for independence had not been extinguished.
The Return of Aguinaldo and the Declaration of Independence
The turning point came with the Spanish-American War, which began in April 1898. The United States, a rising global power, declared war on Spain. Seeing an opportunity to rekindle the revolution and gain support from a potential ally, Aguinaldo decided to return to the Philippines.
Arrangements were made with American representatives, and Aguinaldo arrived back in Cavite on May 19, 1898, aboard a U.S. Navy ship. His return galvanized Filipino forces, and the revolution against Spain quickly resumed with renewed vigor. Filipino troops, aided initially by the presence of the American fleet in Manila Bay (which had defeated the Spanish fleet on May 1, 1898), began liberating provinces from Spanish control.
Within weeks, large areas around Manila were under Filipino control. Feeling confident and wanting to formalize the gains of the revolution and declare the Philippines’ rightful place among sovereign nations, Aguinaldo decided it was time to proclaim independence.
On June 12, 1898, at his ancestral home in Kawit, Cavite, Emilio Aguinaldo declared the independence of the Philippines from Spanish rule. The Philippine flag, designed by Marcela Agoncillo, Lorenza Agoncillo, and Delfina Herbosa de Natividad, was unfurled for the first time, and the Philippine National Anthem, Lupang Hinirang (originally titled Marcha Filipina Magdalo, later Marcha Nacional Filipina) composed by Julian Felipe, was played. The Act of the Declaration of Philippine Independence was read, authored by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista.
This declaration was a monumental event. It was the first time a unified Philippine state was formally proclaimed to the world. It rejected Spanish authority and asserted the right of the Filipino people to self-governance. While Spain did not recognize this declaration, and later the United States would complicate matters further, June 12, 1898, remains the day the Philippines celebrates its independence.
Following the declaration, a revolutionary government was established with Aguinaldo as its head. This government quickly set about the task of organizing the newly liberated territories, appointing provincial and municipal officials, and preparing for the eventual creation of a more stable and permanent republic.
Laying the Foundations: The Malolos Congress
With independence declared and territory secured, the revolutionary government needed to create a framework for the new nation. This led to the convening of the Malolos Congress.
On September 15, 1898, the Revolutionary Congress (later known as the Malolos Congress) was inaugurated at Barasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan, which had become the capital of the revolutionary government. The delegates to the congress were a mix of elected representatives from the provinces under Filipino control and appointed delegates representing areas still under Spanish or American control, or simply to add prominent figures to the assembly. Many of the delegates were highly educated ilustrados, lawyers, doctors, engineers, and wealthy landowners.
The primary tasks of the Malolos Congress were:
- To draft a constitution for the First Philippine Republic.
- To approve the Declaration of Independence.
- To advise Emilio Aguinaldo on important matters.
The composition of the Congress reflected the diverse (though primarily elite) leadership of the revolution. It included figures like Pedro Paterno (elected president of the Congress), Felipe Buencamino, Gregorio Araneta, and Felipe Calderón. While the revolutionaries were fighting for independence, these leaders were simultaneously working to build the institutions of a modern state.
One of the first acts of the Congress was to ratify the Declaration of Independence on September 29, 1898, giving it the formal approval of the representatives of the Filipino people.
Drafting the Malolos Constitution
The most significant work of the Malolos Congress was the drafting of a constitution. Several drafts were proposed, but the one primarily authored by Felipe Calderón gained the most traction. Calderón’s draft was influenced by the constitutions of various countries, including those of Spain, Belgium, Mexico, Brazil, and Costa Rica, combining liberal principles with unique provisions for the Philippine context.
The debates over the constitution were lively and revealed different perspectives among the delegates. A major point of contention was the separation of church and state. While Calderón’s original draft proposed Catholicism as the state religion, this was strongly opposed by delegates like Apolinario Mabini (Aguinaldo’s chief advisor), who argued for a clear separation based on liberal ideals. After intense debate, the principle of the separation of church and state was narrowly adopted, marking a progressive stance for its time.
The drafted constitution was presented to Aguinaldo for approval. Apolinario Mabini, who favored a stronger executive during wartime, initially advised Aguinaldo against immediately implementing the constitution, suggesting amendments. However, the Congress, asserting its legislative authority, insisted on its version.
The final version of the Malolos Constitution was approved by the Malolos Congress on January 20, 1899, and promulgated by President Aguinaldo on January 21, 1899.
Key Features of the Malolos Constitution:
- It declared that sovereignty resided in the people.
- It established a free and independent Republic of the Philippines.
- It created a government with three distinct branches: the Executive (President and cabinet), the Legislative (the Assembly of Representatives), and the Judicial (the Supreme Court and lower courts).
- It included a bill of rights guaranteeing fundamental freedoms such as freedom of religion, speech, the press, assembly, and the right to due process.
- It stipulated that the Assembly of Representatives would be the most powerful branch, electing the President of the Republic. This showed a preference for a parliamentary-style system, a notable feature given the circumstances.
- It also included provisions for local government, education, and the national military.
The Malolos Constitution was a remarkable achievement. It was the first democratic constitution in Asia and represented the ideals and aspirations of the Filipino revolutionaries for a modern, self-governing nation based on liberal principles.
The Birth of the Republic: Inauguration in Malolos
The approval of the Malolos Constitution paved the way for the formal inauguration of the First Philippine Republic.
On January 23, 1899, in Malolos, Bulacan, the First Philippine Republic was officially inaugurated. Emilio Aguinaldo was sworn in as the first President of the Republic. The event was a moment of great triumph and optimism for the Filipino people. For the first time in their history, they had a government created by Filipinos, for Filipinos, based on a constitution they had drafted themselves.
The ceremony marked the transition from a revolutionary government to a constitutional republic. Aguinaldo delivered an inaugural address, emphasizing the importance of the constitution as the foundation of the new government and calling for unity and dedication to the nation.
The government established under the Malolos Constitution included a cabinet, headed by a Prime Minister (initially Apolinario Mabini). Ministries were created for Foreign Affairs, Interior, Finance, War, Public Instruction, Public Works, and Communications. Efforts were made to establish a working bureaucracy, collect taxes, and organize a national army.
The First Philippine Republic was ambitious. Despite being born in the midst of conflict and uncertainty, it sought to establish the institutions of a functioning state. It opened a national university (Universidad Científico-Literaria de Filipinas), published an official newspaper (El Heraldo de la Revolución), and made efforts to administer justice and provide social services in the areas it controlled.
| Branch | Role | Composition |
|---|---|---|
| Executive | Head of State and Government, Commander-in-Chief | President, Cabinet of Secretaries |
| Legislative | Lawmaking, approving national budget, electing the President | Assembly of Representatives (Malolos Congress) |
| Judicial | Interpreting laws, administering justice | Supreme Court and lower courts (though less established) |
Table: Branches of the Government under the Malolos Constitution
The capital, Malolos, became a center of activity. Diplomatic efforts were made to gain international recognition for the new republic, sending representatives to countries like the United States, France, and Japan. However, recognition proved difficult to obtain, largely due to the unfolding relationship with the United States.
The Gathering Storm: The Philippines and the United States
While the Filipinos were busy establishing their republic, the relationship with their erstwhile allies, the Americans, was rapidly deteriorating. When Aguinaldo returned, he believed the Americans were helping them achieve independence from Spain. American consuls and naval officers had, at times, given the impression that the US supported Philippine independence.
However, the true intentions of the United States became clearer after the Battle of Manila Bay. The Americans, under Commodore George Dewey, defeated the Spanish fleet but did not immediately capture Manila. Instead, they waited for ground troops to arrive. Filipino forces, meanwhile, surrounded Manila and effectively trapped the Spanish forces inside.
When American ground troops arrived, an agreement was made between the US and Spanish commanders to stage a “mock battle” for Manila on August 13, 1898. This was done to allow the Spanish to surrender to the Americans, avoiding the perceived humiliation of surrendering to the Filipino forces who had done most of the fighting on the ground. Filipino troops were deliberately prevented from entering the city after the “battle.” This event was a major indicator that the US did not intend to simply hand over control to the Filipinos.
The signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898, sealed the fate of Spanish colonialism but introduced a new colonial power. In the treaty, Spain “ceded” the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. The Filipino government was not consulted or included in these negotiations. This act was seen by Filipinos as a blatant betrayal by the United States and a denial of their hard-won independence.
Tensions between Filipino and American forces, who were now occupying Manila and surrounding areas, grew daily. There were frequent confrontations and misunderstandings. Despite these tensions, President Aguinaldo and other Filipino leaders tried to maintain a peaceful relationship, hoping diplomacy could resolve the situation. They sent delegations to meet with American officials, including the Schurman Commission sent by President McKinley, to argue for Philippine independence.
However, the American perspective, particularly that of President William McKinley, leaned towards taking control of the islands. McKinley spoke of the need to “educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them,” reflecting the paternalistic and expansionist views prevalent in the US at the time, despite the Philippines having been Christianized by Spain centuries earlier and having its own educated elite.
The Philippine-American War Begins
The fragile peace broke on the night of February 4, 1899. A Filipino soldier reportedly crossed into American-controlled territory in Santa Mesa, Manila, and was shot by an American sentry. This incident, though small in itself, was the spark that ignited the Philippine-American War.
American forces immediately launched an offensive against Filipino positions around Manila. The Filipino army, though courageous and motivated by the defense of their newly declared republic, was largely outgunned and less organized than the professional American army.
President Aguinaldo initially attempted to stop the fighting, believing it might have been a mistake, but it quickly escalated into full-scale warfare. The war forced the First Philippine Republic to shift its focus from nation-building to survival.
The war unfolded in different phases:
- Phase 1 (1899-1900): A conventional war phase where American forces sought to defeat the Filipino army in pitched battles and capture key cities and strategic locations. The capital of the Republic was forced to move several times as American forces advanced (from Malolos to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija, then to Tarlac, and finally to Palanan, Isabela). Despite some Filipino victories, like the Battle of Pulang Lupa in Marinduque, the American military superiority gradually prevailed in open combat. Key Filipino generals like Antonio Luna, a brilliant but controversial figure, attempted to professionalize the army, but internal divisions and logistical problems hampered their efforts. The assassination of General Luna in June 1899 was a significant blow to the Republic’s military capabilities.
- Phase 2 (1900-1902): As the conventional army was broken up, the war transitioned into a guerrilla phase. Filipino fighters, often operating in smaller units, launched ambushes, raids, and used their knowledge of the terrain to harass American forces. This phase was brutal, characterized by both sides employing harsh tactics. The American military implemented policies like “reconcentration camps” to isolate guerrillas from the civilian population, and retaliatory measures were often severe.
The First Philippine Republic continued to exist de jure (in law), but its effective control over territory diminished. Aguinaldo’s government became a government on the run, constantly evading American forces. Despite the difficulties, local revolutionary governments continued to operate in some areas, demonstrating the depth of resistance.
Key challenges faced by the Republic during the war included:
- Lack of arms and supplies compared to the US army.
- Difficulty in maintaining a unified command structure.
- Lack of international recognition and support.
- Internal challenges, including regionalism and loyalty shifts.
A significant event during the war was the Battle of Tirad Pass in December 1899, where a small force of Filipino soldiers under General Gregorio del Pilar fought a delaying action against American troops to allow President Aguinaldo to escape. Del Pilar and most of his men were killed, but their sacrifice became a powerful symbol of Filipino bravery.
The war dragged on for several years, causing immense suffering and loss of life on both sides, particularly among the Filipino population.
The Fall of the Republic
The capture of President Emilio Aguinaldo on March 23, 1901, in Palanan, Isabela, was a major turning point in the war and marked the effective end of the First Philippine Republic as a functioning government. Aguinaldo was captured through a clever ruse involving American General Frederick Funston and Macabebe scouts loyal to the Americans.
Shortly after his capture, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation calling on his countrymen to lay down their arms and accept American sovereignty. While the war continued for a time in various parts of the archipelago, Aguinaldo’s capture and call for surrender significantly weakened the remaining resistance.
Other Filipino leaders and generals gradually surrendered or were captured. The US declared the war officially over in 1902, although sporadic resistance continued in some areas for several more years, notably by groups like the Moro people in the southern Philippines.
The American government established a civil government in the Philippines under William Howard Taft in 1901, marking the formal beginning of the American colonial period. The First Philippine Republic, which had stood as the embodiment of Filipino aspirations for independence, ceased to exist in practice.
The Legacy of the First Philippine Republic
Despite its short life, the First Philippine Republic left an indelible mark on Philippine history.
- First Republic in Asia: It was the first time an independent republic was established in Asia, serving as an inspiration for other nationalist movements in the region. It demonstrated that Asian people were capable of forming their own modern, constitutional governments.
- Foundation of Philippine Democracy: The Malolos Constitution, with its emphasis on popular sovereignty, separation of powers, and a bill of rights, laid down principles that would influence future Philippine political development and constitutionalism. It showed the Filipino capacity for democratic governance.
- Symbol of National Unity and Independence: The Republic united Filipinos from different regions and social classes (at least its leaders) under a common banner of independence. It provided a tangible representation of the nation they were fighting for. The national symbols adopted during this period – the flag and the anthem – remain central to Philippine identity today.
- Experience in Governance: Even in its brief existence and under immense pressure, the Republic gained valuable experience in administering a government, organizing resources, and conducting diplomacy, laying the groundwork for future Filipino self-rule.
- Historical Precedent: The Republic’s existence and the Philippine-American War that followed cemented the Filipino claim to independence and resistance against foreign domination, shaping the narrative of Philippine nationalism.
Historians continue to debate various aspects of the Republic, such as the leadership of Aguinaldo, the role of the ilustrados, and the internal challenges it faced. However, there is no denying its significance as the moment Filipinos transformed their struggle for freedom into a formal, constitutional state.
The dream of complete and unconditional independence that the First Philippine Republic embodied would take many more decades and another world war to fully realize, but the groundwork was laid in Malolos.
Key Takeaways:
- The First Philippine Republic, or Malolos Republic, was inaugurated on January 23, 1899, after the Philippines declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898.
- It was the first independent republic established in Asia.
- Its constitution, the Malolos Constitution, was the first democratic constitution in Asia, establishing a government with three branches and a bill of rights.
- Emilio Aguinaldo was the first and only President of the Republic.
- The Republic was short-lived, facing challenges from the start, particularly the outbreak of the Philippine-American War in February 1899.
- The war began after tensions escalated following the Spanish-American War and the Treaty of Paris, where Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States.
- The Republic’s effective existence ended with the capture of President Aguinaldo by American forces in March 1901.
- Despite its brief life, the First Philippine Republic is a crucial symbol of Filipino nationalism and self-determination, laying the foundations for future Philippine statehood.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):
- When was the First Philippine Republic established? The First Philippine Republic was formally inaugurated on January 23, 1899, in Malolos, Bulacan, following the Declaration of Independence on June 12, 1898.
- Where was the capital of the First Philippine Republic? The initial capital was Malolos, Bulacan. However, due to the Philippine-American War, the capital had to be moved multiple times as American forces advanced.
- Who was the first president of the First Philippine Republic? Emilio Aguinaldo was the first and only President of the First Philippine Republic.
- What was the Malolos Constitution? The Malolos Constitution was the constitution of the First Philippine Republic. It was drafted by the Malolos Congress and promulgated in January 1899. It was the first democratic constitution in Asia and established the structure and principles of the new government.
- How long did the First Philippine Republic last? The Republic existed de jure from its inauguration in January 1899 until the capture of President Aguinaldo in March 1901, although the war and loss of territory meant its effective control was limited for much of this period.
- Why is the First Philippine Republic also called the Malolos Republic? It is often called the Malolos Republic because its capital was located in Malolos, Bulacan, where the Malolos Congress convened and the Republic was inaugurated.
- What caused the end of the First Philippine Republic? The First Philippine Republic was effectively ended by the Philippine-American War. The superior military power of the United States and the eventual capture of President Aguinaldo led to the collapse of the Republic’s government and army.
- Was the First Philippine Republic recognized internationally? Despite efforts by the Republic’s diplomats, it did not gain significant international recognition from major world powers, who mostly favored the United States’ position after the Treaty of Paris.
Conclusion
The First Philippine Republic stands as a testament to the courage, determination, and political maturity of the Filipino people at the close of the 19th century. Born from the fires of revolution against Spanish colonial rule, it represented the culmination of centuries of resistance and the realization of a dream for national sovereignty. Under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, and guided by the progressive principles of the Malolos Constitution, Filipinos attempted to build a modern, democratic state.
However, the aspirations of the Republic were tragically cut short by the arrival of a new colonial power, the United States. The outbreak of the Philippine-American War forced the young republic into a desperate struggle for survival, ultimately leading to its downfall.
Despite its brief existence and the challenges it faced, the First Philippine Republic remains a profoundly significant period in Philippine history. It demonstrated the Filipino capacity for self-governance and the deep-seated desire for independence that would continue to fuel the nationalist movement for decades to come. The ideals embodied by the Republic – liberty, democracy, and national sovereignty – continue to resonate and serve as foundational pillars of the Republic of the Philippines today. It was a pioneering experiment in republicanism in Asia, a brave assertion of national identity, and an enduring symbol of the Filipino spirit.