When the United States took control of the Philippines after the Spanish-American War, they faced a complex challenge unlike anywhere else in the archipelago: the predominantly Muslim areas of Mindanao and Sulu. For centuries, the Moro sultanates and communities had fiercely resisted Spanish attempts at full subjugation. This legacy of independence and distinct cultural and political structures meant that American rule could not simply be a carbon copy of the administration being set up in Christian parts of Luzon and the Visayas. The unique situation led to the creation of the Moro Province, a distinct political reality that governed these southern regions from 1903 to 1914. Understanding the Moro Province is crucial to grasping the complexities of the American colonial period in the Philippines and its lasting impact on the relationship between the national government and Muslim Mindanao.
The establishment of the Moro Province was a direct response to the military and political situation the Americans encountered in the southern Philippines. Following the Treaty of Paris in 1898, Spain ceded the entire Philippine archipelago to the United States. However, Spain’s control over Muslim Mindanao and Sulu had always been tenuous and limited primarily to coastal garrisons and treaty arrangements that recognized a degree of autonomy for the sultans, particularly the Sultan of Sulu.
The American military initially sought to avoid conflict in the South while focusing on the Philippine-American War raging in the north. General John C. Bates negotiated the Bates Treaty with the Sultan of Sulu in 1899. This treaty recognized American sovereignty over Sulu but maintained many of the Sultan’s traditional powers, including collecting taxes and administering justice, in exchange for acknowledging US authority and flying the American flag. The treaty was controversial, seen by some American officials as a pragmatic way to isolate the southern Muslims from the northern Filipino revolutionaries, while others viewed it as a betrayal of American principles by recognizing slavery (which the Sultanate still practiced) and effectively paying tribute to the Sultanate. More critically, the treaty eventually broke down due to differing interpretations and American encroachment on traditional datus’ powers, leading to increased tensions and conflict.
The Need for a Specialized Administration
As the Philippine-American War wound down in the Christian north, the Americans turned their attention more fully to the southern regions. They realized that a different approach was needed for the Moros (a term the Spanish used, derived from “Moor,” which the Americans adopted). These groups—including the Maguindanao, Maranao, Tausug, Samal, and others—had distinct social structures, legal systems based on adat (customary law) and Islamic law, and a strong warrior tradition. Imposing the same civil government structures being developed elsewhere in the Philippines seemed impractical and likely to provoke widespread resistance.
The initial American presence in Mindanao and Sulu was primarily military. Major General George W. Davis, who commanded the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, recommended the creation of a special government for the region. He argued that the Moros were not yet ready for the municipal and provincial governments being established in Christian areas. The Philippine Commission, the legislative body created by the U.S. Congress to govern the Philippines, agreed with this assessment.
The result was Act No. 787 of the Philippine Commission, passed on June 1, 1903. This act officially organized the Moro Province. It encompassed a vast territory covering much of mainland Mindanao south of the 8th parallel, plus the Sulu Archipelago. The province was divided into five districts: Zamboanga, Lanao, Cotabato, Davao, and Sulu. Zamboanga Town became the capital.
Structure and Governance of the Moro Province
The governance of the Moro Province was unique within the American colonial administration in the Philippines. It was designed to be a transitional government, aiming to gradually introduce Western-style institutions while respecting (to some extent) local customs and authority, and critically, maintaining stability and control.
The structure of the Moro Province had several key features:
- Executive Control: The province was headed by a Governor, who was initially the Commanding General of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu. This fusion of military and civil authority reflected the view that military control was necessary to maintain order in the region. The first Governor was Major General Leonard Wood, a highly capable but often controversial figure known for his firmness. Other military governors included Brigadier General Tasker H. Bliss and Brigadier General John J. Pershing (later famous for commanding American forces in World War I).
- Legislative Council: A legislative body, the Moro Provincial Council, assisted the Governor. This council consisted of the Governor, the Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Treasurer, and the Superintendent of Schools. All members were appointed by the Philippine Commission, and crucially, the council initially had no local representation. This was a highly centralized, top-down administration.
- District Governance: Each of the five districts was headed by a District Governor, also appointed. Like the Provincial Governor, the District Governors initially often held military rank. These District Governors were the primary interface between the American administration and the local communities.
- Local Administration: Below the district level, the Americans attempted to create local administrative units based on geographical areas or groupings of people. They often worked with, or attempted to supplant, existing local leaders like datus. The concept of the datu as a local official was sometimes incorporated into the American system, but this often caused friction as American notions of authority differed significantly from traditional ones.
- Special Laws and Regulations: The Moro Province operated under laws and regulations specifically tailored to its unique circumstances. These included laws regarding land ownership, the creation of schools for non-Christian tribes, efforts to suppress slavery, and measures aimed at controlling weapons and preventing conflict.
Military Rule (1903-1913)
For the first decade of its existence, the Moro Province was largely under military rule. The Provincial Governors were military officers, and the administration prioritized pacification and the establishment of American authority. This period saw significant military campaigns aimed at suppressing resistance from various groups who resented American intrusion, taxation, and attempts to change their social structures.
Key Events and Policies during Military Rule:
- Pacification Campaigns: Military expeditions were launched in areas where resistance was strong, particularly in Lanao against Maranao datus and in Sulu against Tausug groups. Notorious incidents like the First Battle of Bud Dajo (1906) and the Battle of Bud Bagsak (1913) resulted in heavy Moro casualties and drew international criticism. The American military justified these actions as necessary to end resistance and banditry, while many Moros viewed them as brutal massacres targeting civilians along with fighters.
- Infrastructure Development: Despite the focus on military control, efforts were made to build infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and government buildings, primarily to facilitate military movement and administration, but also with economic goals in mind.
- Education: American administrators recognized the importance of education, but schools were initially slow to develop and faced resistance. Special schools were established for ‘non-Christian tribes,’ often focusing on industrial training and basic literacy rather than the more academic curriculum offered in Christian areas. The goal was partly assimilation and integration into the American system.
- Land Policies: American land policies, particularly the Torrens system of land registration, created significant challenges. Traditional Moro land ownership was often communal or based on long-standing use and lineage, not formal individual titles. The imposition of the American system led to confusion, dispossession, and further resentment, sometimes opening the door for Christian settlers from the north and foreign corporations to acquire land in Mindanao.
- Efforts Against Slavery: American officials were keen to eradicate slavery, which was practiced in various forms by some Moro groups. However, these efforts were met with resistance, as slavery was deeply intertwined with social status and economic power for many datus. The approach was gradual, often involving ransoming slaves and discouraging the practice rather than outright forceful abolition initially.
The military governors, like Wood and Pershing, were strong-willed individuals who believed in firm control and the need to uplift the Moros according to American standards. While they oversaw improvements in infrastructure and public health, their rule was characterized by conflict and a limited understanding of or respect for Moro customs and desires for self-governance.
Transition to Civil Rule (1913-1914)
In 1913, a significant shift occurred with the appointment of Frank Carpenter as the Governor of the Moro Province. Carpenter was a civilian and brought a different philosophy to the role. The shift from military to civil rule was a deliberate policy change under the administration of President Woodrow Wilson, reflecting a broader move towards preparing the Philippines for eventual self-governance (though the timeline and nature of this self-governance were still debated).
Carpenter’s approach emphasized negotiation, diplomacy, and a greater attempt to understand and work with local leaders. He famously negotiated an agreement with the Sultan of Sulu in 1915 (the Carpenter Agreement), which formally divested the Sultan of his temporal sovereignty while preserving his religious authority. This agreement effectively ended the political dualism that had existed since the Bates Treaty, solidifying American (and later Philippine) governmental authority over Sulu.
Carpenter also promoted economic development, improved public services, and sought to integrate the Moro Province more closely with the rest of the Philippines administratively, albeit still within a special framework. However, the transition was short-lived for the Moro Province itself.
Dissolution of the Moro Province and Creation of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu
The Moro Province proved to be a temporary measure. While it succeeded in establishing American control and laying some groundwork for modernization (in the American view), it also created significant friction and did not fully bridge the gap between the administration and the diverse Moro communities, nor did it successfully integrate the region into the evolving Filipino national identity as envisioned by some American officials.
The move towards greater Filipino participation in government across the archipelago under the Jones Law (Philippine Autonomy Act) of 1916 prompted a rethinking of the special administration in the South. The U.S. government, and increasingly Filipino leaders, desired a more unified administrative structure for the entire country.
On December 16, 1914, Act No. 2408 of the Philippine Commission dissolved the Moro Province and created the Department of Mindanao and Sulu.
Here’s a comparison highlighting the shift:
| Feature | Moro Province (1903-1914) | Department of Mindanao and Sulu (1914-1920) |
|---|---|---|
| Governing Head | Provincial Governor (Initially Military Officer) | Department Governor (Civilian) |
| Legislative Body | Moro Provincial Council (Appointed American Officials) | Department Council (Included some Filipino representation) |
| Primary Focus | Pacification, Establishing Control, Basic Services | Development, Integration, Working with Local Leaders, Civil Rule |
| Territorial Scope | Zamboanga, Lanao, Cotabato, Davao, Sulu Districts | Included Agusan Province as well as the former Moro Province districts |
| Under Whom | Directly under the Philippine Commission | Under the executive control of the Governor-General of the Philippines |
The Department of Mindanao and Sulu continued the work initiated during the later phase of the Moro Province under Frank Carpenter, who became the first Department Governor. The emphasis was more on civil administration, economic development, and gradual integration, though the challenges of governing a diverse region with strong traditions of autonomy remained. The Department itself was relatively short-lived, being replaced by a Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes under the Department of the Interior in 1920, and eventually, provinces in the region came under the standard provincial government system, albeit often with special considerations or structures.
Impact and Legacy
The Moro Province left a complex and controversial legacy.
- Foundation for Integration (or Lack Thereof): The Americans genuinely believed they were bringing progress, stability, and the benefits of Western civilization to the region. They built infrastructure, established schools and hospitals, and attempted to introduce a standardized legal system. These efforts laid some groundwork for the region’s integration into the broader Philippine state, but the methods used, particularly the military campaigns, created deep-seated resentment and mistrust.
- Reinforcement of Distinct Identity: While aiming for integration, the very act of creating a separate administrative unit for the “Moros” reinforced the notion that these groups were distinct from the Christian Filipinos and required special handling. This administrative separation arguably contributed to the perception of Mindanao and Sulu as different, setting the stage for future calls for autonomy or separation.
- Conflict and Violence: The period of the Moro Province was marked by significant violence. The American pacification campaigns, while suppressing armed resistance, often came at a high human cost and solidified an adversarial relationship between some Moro communities and the central government (whether American or later Filipino). Incidents like Bud Dajo remain potent symbols of historical grievances.
- Economic Transformation: American policies encouraged large-scale agriculture and resource extraction, attracting settlers from the north. This led to demographic shifts, land disputes, and changes in traditional economic practices, further disrupting local societies.
- Political Implications: The American administration bypassed or undermined traditional leadership structures in favor of appointed officials or amenable datus. This altered the political landscape and contributed to new forms of local power dynamics. The issue of integrating the Moro areas politically into the Philippine nation-state remained unresolved by the end of the American period and continues to be a central challenge today.
- The “Moro Problem”: American officials often framed the challenges in the South as the “Moro Problem,” viewing the Moros as inherently resistant, fanatical, or backward. This essentialist view obscured the diverse motivations for resistance (defense of land, religion, autonomy, honor) and contributed to a legacy of misunderstanding and prejudice that persisted for decades.
The Moro Province, as a specific administrative entity, lasted only eleven years. However, the policies initiated during this time, the conflicts that occurred, and the administrative approach taken had profound and long-lasting effects on Mindanao and Sulu, shaping the sociopolitical landscape and contributing to the ongoing challenges of achieving lasting peace and development in the region. It stands as a critical, albeit often painful, chapter in the history of American colonialism in the Philippines and the complex narrative of Muslim Mindanao.
The American experience in the Moro Province demonstrated the difficulties of imposing external governance on communities with deeply ingrained cultural and political traditions different from the colonizing power. Despite intentions of bringing “civilization” and order, the methods employed often exacerbated tensions and contributed to the very problems they sought to solve. The legacy of this period continues to inform discussions about autonomy, self-determination, and historical justice in the southern Philippines.
Understanding the Moro Province requires looking beyond simple narratives of conflict or progress. It involves examining the motivations and actions of the American administrators, the diverse responses of the Moro communities, the impact of specific policies like land laws and education, and the broader context of American colonial ambitions and the nascent Filipino nationalist movement.
The policies implemented regarding land ownership, for example, were particularly disruptive. The American concept of individual, titled land ownership was alien to many Moro groups who held land communally or based on tribal or lineage claims. When the Americans began surveying and registering land, often requiring formal applications and fees, many Moros did not understand the process or were unable to comply. This led to lands being declared public domain or acquired by outsiders, including Christian settlers encouraged by the government and foreign companies interested in plantations. This dispossession became a major source of grievance and fueled resistance.
Similarly, efforts to change social customs, such as the attempts to abolish slavery and the datto system, were seen by many as attacks on their way of life and the authority of their traditional leaders. While the Americans viewed these practices through their own moral and political lenses, they often failed to appreciate their complex roles within Moro society. The resistance was not simply “banditry” or “fanaticism” but often a defense of social order, economic security, and cultural identity.
The educational system introduced was also a point of contention. While American schools offered new opportunities, they were also seen as instruments of assimilation, aimed at Christianizing and Westernizing Moro youth. The curriculum often ignored local history, culture, and religion. This led many families to prefer traditional Islamic education or avoid American schools altogether.
The experience of the Moro Province highlights a classic colonial dilemma: how to exert control and implement policies in a region with a distinct, long-standing culture and political structure without provoking resistance or destroying the social fabric. The American approach, initially heavily reliant on military force and later shifting to a more diplomatic but still paternalistic civil administration, yielded mixed results. It established state control but failed to win the hearts and minds of many inhabitants.
The Brigandage Act, though not solely applied to the Moro Province, was a significant piece of legislation during the early American period that had a disproportionate impact in areas resisting American rule, including parts of Mindanao. This act essentially declared anyone involved in armed resistance who was not a formally recognized soldier a “brigand” or bandit, subject to harsh penalties. This law blurred the lines between legitimate resistance fighters and criminals, allowing the military and police to pursue and punish those opposing American authority with less legal constraint. In the context of the Moro Province, where resistance often took the form of localized uprisings led by datus, the Brigandage Act provided a legal basis for harsh counterinsurgency measures.
The governors of the Moro Province, both military and civilian, played crucial roles in shaping the administration and its interactions with the local population.
| Governor | Term | Background | Key Approach / Notable Events |
|---|---|---|---|
| Leonard Wood | 1903-1906 | Military | First Governor; Established administration; Military pacification; Bud Dajo Massacre (1906) |
| Tasker H. Bliss | 1906-1909 | Military | Continued pacification efforts; Focus on education and infrastructure (limited success) |
| John J. Pershing | 1909-1913 | Military | Longest-serving military governor; More emphasis on civil aspects but continued pacification; Bud Bagsak (1913) |
| Frank Carpenter | 1913-1914 | Civilian | Shift to civil rule; Emphasized diplomacy & development; Negotiated Carpenter Agreement (post-Moro Province) |
Carpenter’s brief tenure as the last governor marked a turning point, signaling a recognition by the American government that a purely military approach was unsustainable and counterproductive in the long term. His focus on understanding local customs and working with local leaders, rather than simply imposing authority, set a precedent for future (though often inconsistent) approaches.
The creation of the Moro Province and its subsequent transformation into the Department of Mindanao and Sulu were part of a broader American strategy to integrate the southern Philippines into the colonial state while managing its distinctiveness. The strategy involved:
- Establishing military control over key areas and routes.
- Implementing a separate administrative and legal framework.
- Introducing Western education and public health systems.
- Promoting economic development, often through attracting foreign and Christian Filipino investment and labor.
- Gradually undermining the political authority of traditional leaders like sultans and datus, while sometimes co-opting them into the new administrative structure.
This strategy was never fully successful in achieving smooth integration. The legacy of conflict and administrative separation fostered a sense of alienation among many Moros from the central government based in Manila. The land issues created during this period, stemming from incompatible land tenure systems and large-scale migration, continue to be a source of tension and conflict today.
Furthermore, the American decision to lump various distinct ethnolinguistic groups (Maguindanao, Maranao, Tausug, Samal, etc.) under the single administrative term “Moro” (borrowed from the Spanish) reinforced an external label that didn’t fully capture the diversity within Muslim Mindanao. While these groups shared Islam, they had different languages, customs, and historical experiences. The administrative unit treated them somewhat monolithically, overlooking intra-Moro dynamics.
The Juramentado phenomenon, though predating American rule, became particularly associated with the American period due to the intense conflict. Juramentado refers to a religious ritual where a Muslim man would shave his body, tightly bind his genitals (to ensure focus), and arm himself, then attack Christian or foreign targets with the specific goal of dying while killing as many enemies as possible, viewing it as a form of religious martyrdom (shahid). The Americans struggled to understand and counter this tactic, viewing it as fanaticism rather than a complex response rooted in religious belief, social pressure, and extreme resistance to perceived oppression or intrusion. Incidents involving juramentados were often met with overwhelming military force, further escalating violence.
The economic policies pursued by the Americans in Mindanao had significant long-term consequences. The encouragement of large-scale plantations, particularly for rubber, hemp, and coconuts, led to the entry of foreign companies (like Goodyear and Firestone) and Christian Filipino entrepreneurs. This development often occurred on lands traditionally used by Moro communities, exacerbating land conflicts. While it brought some economic activity, the benefits were often concentrated in the hands of outsiders, and it disrupted traditional subsistence economies.
Key Takeaways:
- The Moro Province (1903-1914) was a unique administrative region created by the American colonial government to rule the predominantly Muslim areas of Mindanao and Sulu due to their distinct history of resistance and social structures.
- It began primarily under military rule (1903-1913) focused on pacification, led by figures like Leonard Wood and John J. Pershing, marked by significant conflict and violence.
- A brief shift to civil rule occurred under Frank Carpenter (1913-1914), emphasizing diplomacy and development.
- Governance was top-down, with a Governor and appointed Council; local administration attempted to interact with or supplant traditional leaders like datus.
- American policies, including land registration, education, and attempts to suppress slavery, often clashed with Moro customs and fueled resentment.
- The Moro Province was dissolved in 1914 and replaced by the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, signaling a move towards greater administrative integration with the rest of the Philippines, albeit still under a special framework.
- The legacy of the Moro Province includes contributing to infrastructure, education, and public services, but also fostering deep mistrust due to military violence and policies that disrupted traditional life and led to land conflicts.
- Its existence reinforced the perception of Muslim Mindanao as distinct and requiring special governance, influencing future relations between the region and the Philippine central government.
The history of the Moro Province is not just a story of American administration; it is equally the story of the resilience and diverse responses of the Moro peoples – from armed resistance and defiance to negotiation, adaptation, and attempts to engage with the new system on their own terms. The creation and operation of this distinct political entity under American rule were pivotal in shaping the modern history of Mindanao and Sulu and the ongoing quest for peace and autonomy in the southern Philippines.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):
Q: What was the main reason for creating the Moro Province? A: The main reason was the unique historical situation in Muslim Mindanao and Sulu. Unlike Christian parts of the Philippines, these areas had a long history of resisting Spanish rule and maintained distinct political, social, and cultural structures. The American government felt a different, more controlled administration was needed to establish sovereignty and maintain order compared to the standard civil governments being set up elsewhere.
Q: Who was the first governor of the Moro Province? A: The first governor was Major General Leonard Wood, a military officer who also served as the Commanding General of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu. His tenure was characterized by military efforts to consolidate American control.
Q: How long did the Moro Province exist? A: The Moro Province existed for a relatively short period, from its creation by Act No. 787 of the Philippine Commission on June 1, 1903, until it was dissolved on December 16, 1914, replaced by the Department of Mindanao and Sulu.
Q: What was the difference between military rule and civil rule in the Moro Province? A: Military rule (roughly 1903-1913) was characterized by governors who were military officers, with a primary focus on pacification, establishing authority through force when necessary, and limited focus on civilian administration. Civil rule (initiated briefly in 1913-1914 under Frank Carpenter) shifted the emphasis to diplomacy, negotiation, economic development, and integrating more civilian aspects into the administration, aiming for a less confrontational approach.
Q: Did the creation of the Moro Province help integrate the region into the Philippines? A: It’s a complex question. The American administration did build infrastructure, introduce some public services, and establish a state presence that laid groundwork for future integration. However, the methods used, particularly military violence and policies that disregarded local customs (like land laws), also generated significant resentment and reinforced a sense of distinctness, arguably making full integration more difficult in the long run.
Q: What happened to the Moro Province after 1914? A: The Moro Province was dissolved and replaced by the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, still a special administrative region but under civilian leadership (like Frank Carpenter) and intended to be more integrated into the overall executive structure of the Philippine government under the Governor-General. This department also only lasted a few years before further administrative changes occurred.
Q: Were Christian Filipinos allowed to settle in the Moro Province? A: Yes, under American rule, policies encouraged migration from Christian areas of the Philippines to Mindanao, particularly to work on plantations and in newly opened agricultural areas. This migration, combined with American land policies, led to significant demographic changes and often resulted in land disputes with indigenous Moro communities.
Q: How did the Moros react to the Moro Province administration? A: Reactions varied widely. Some datus and communities sought to cooperate with the Americans for strategic or economic reasons. Many others resisted fiercely, leading to numerous conflicts and uprisings throughout the province’s existence. Resistance was motivated by a desire to protect land, religion, autonomy, and traditional ways of life from external control.
Conclusion
The Moro Province stands as a significant, yet often challenging, chapter in the history of the American colonial period in the Philippines. Created out of the necessity to govern a region with a unique history and culture of resistance, it represented a departure from the standard administrative model applied elsewhere in the archipelago. From its initial phase under military command focused on pacification to the brief shift towards a more civil approach, the administration of the Moro Province under American rule was a constant negotiation between the colonizer’s goals of control, modernization, and integration, and the aspirations of the diverse Moro communities for autonomy and the preservation of their identity.
While the American administration introduced elements of modern infrastructure, public services, and a Western-style legal system, the means by which these were implemented, particularly the use of military force and disruptive land policies, created lasting grievances. The legacy of the Moro Province is therefore one of mixed outcomes: it facilitated the assertion of state authority over a previously loosely controlled territory but also deepened the divide between Muslim Mindanao and the central government, contributing to conflicts that persist to this day. Understanding this distinct administrative experiment is vital for appreciating the complex historical layers that shaped the relationship between the Philippine nation-state and its Muslim populations in the South.