Philippines Airport Code

An airport is typically perceived as a gateway – a place of arrivals and departures, connecting people and commerce across vast distances. Yet, some airports transcend their utilitarian function to become indelible landmarks in a nation’s history, their very grounds bearing witness to events that shape destiny. In the Philippines, one specific Philippines Airport Code – MNL, representing what is now known as Ninoy Aquino International Airport – holds such a profound place. This code signifies more than just Manila’s primary aviation hub; it marks the location of a tragedy that galvanized a nation and altered the course of Philippine history 20th century.

The tarmac of this airport, formerly known as Manila International Airport (MIA), was the stage for the shocking Ninoy Aquino assassination on August 21, 1983. This single, brutal act became the catalyst that eventually led to the downfall of a long-standing regime and the remarkable People Power Revolution. This article delves into the history surrounding MNL, exploring the volatile political climate under Ferdinand Marcos and Martial Law Philippines that set the stage for the assassination, the event itself, its contentious investigation by the Agrava Commission, and its ultimate consequence: the triumphant restoration of Philippine democracy through the peaceful uprising known as the EDSA Revolution. We will examine the key figures – Benigno Aquino Jr., Corazon Aquino, Juan Ponce Enrile, Fidel V. Ramos – and trace the path from a tragic Tarmac assassination to national liberation, forever linking the identity of this major Philippines Airport Code to a defining moment in the Filipino saga.

The Shadow of Dictatorship: The Philippines Under Marcos and Martial Law

To understand the significance of the events at Manila International Airport on that fateful August day, one must first grasp the political atmosphere of the preceding decade. Ferdinand Marcos was first elected President of the Philippines in 1965 and re-elected in 1969, the first Filipino president to win a second term. However, facing constitutionally mandated term limits and growing social unrest fueled by economic inequality, student activism, and communist insurgency, Marcos made a drastic move.

On September 21, 1972 (though publicly announced two days later), President Marcos signed Proclamation No. 1081, placing the entire Philippines under Martial Law. Citing the threats of communism and civil strife, Marcos suspended the writ of habeas corpus, dissolved Congress, consolidated power within the executive branch, and began ruling by decree. This marked the beginning of a fourteen-year period (1972-1986) characterized by authoritarian rule, although Martial Law was technically lifted in January 1981.

Life Under Martial Law Philippines

The initial years of Martial Law Philippines saw some superficial improvements in peace and order, infrastructure development (often funded by massive foreign loans), and a crackdown on petty crime. However, this came at a tremendous cost:

Suppression of Dissent: Political opposition was systematically dismantled. Critics, journalists, student leaders, labor organizers, and anyone perceived as a threat to the regime were arrested, detained, tortured, or disappeared. Prominent figures like Senator Benigno Aquino Jr., Marcos’s chief political rival, were among the first to be imprisoned.
Media Control: Major media outlets critical of the government were shut down or taken over by Marcos cronies. Freedom of the press was severely curtailed, replaced by state-controlled propaganda.
Human Rights Abuses: Thousands of Filipinos suffered human rights violations, including arbitrary arrests, indefinite detention, torture, extrajudicial killings, and forced disappearances. Military and police forces operated with near impunity.
Corruption and Cronyism: While Marcos spoke of a “New Society,” his regime became notorious for systemic corruption. Vast sums of public funds were allegedly plundered, and lucrative industries and contracts were awarded to family members and close associates (cronies), leading to immense economic disparity and crippling national debt.
Erosion of Institutions: Democratic institutions like Congress and the judiciary were weakened or co-opted, undermining checks and balances on executive power.

Despite the lifting of Martial Law in 1981, Marcos retained sweeping decree-making powers, and the structures of authoritarian control largely remained intact. The political climate was one of fear, suppressed anger, and growing disillusionment. It was within this suffocating environment that Benigno Aquino Jr., the most prominent voice of opposition, decided he had to return.

The Exiled Patriot: Ninoy Aquino’s Journey Home

Benigno Aquino Jr., popularly known as “Ninoy,” was a charismatic and formidable political figure. A former journalist, senator, and governor, he was widely seen as the most likely candidate to challenge Ferdinand Marcos for the presidency before the declaration of Martial Law led to his immediate arrest. Ninoy spent nearly eight years in military detention, charged with subversion, murder, and illegal possession of firearms – charges widely seen as politically motivated.

During his imprisonment, Aquino remained a potent symbol of resistance. He went on a hunger strike, wrote scathing critiques of the Marcos regime, and stood trial before a military tribunal, which he refused to recognize. In 1980, suffering from a heart condition, Aquino was allowed to travel to the United States for medical treatment. This marked the beginning of a three-year exile, primarily based in Boston.

Even in exile, Aquino continued to be a vocal critic of the Marcos dictatorship. He spoke at universities, met with policymakers, and networked with Filipino expatriate communities, advocating for the peaceful restoration of Philippine democracy. He warned of the growing communist insurgency, arguing that Marcos’s repressive rule was fueling the rebellion.

By 1983, the Philippines was facing a deepening economic crisis, and President Marcos’s health was reportedly declining. Sensing a critical juncture and believing his presence was needed back home to help unify the opposition and negotiate a peaceful transition, Ninoy made the fateful decision to return, fully aware of the immense risks. He famously stated, “The Filipino is worth dying for.”

Despite warnings from the Marcos government, alleged death threats, and pleas from family and friends, Ninoy was resolute. He arranged his return journey under an assumed name (Marcial Bonifacio – “Marcial” for Martial Law, “Bonifacio” for Fort Bonifacio, where he was imprisoned) and planned his arrival at Manila International Airport for August 21, 1983. He hoped his return would reinvigorate the democratic opposition and force Marcos towards political reforms.

August 21, 1983: Tragedy on the Tarmac

China Airlines Flight 811, carrying Benigno Aquino Jr., touched down at Manila International Airport (MIA) shortly after 1:00 PM on Sunday, August 21, 1983. The world watched, with journalists aboard the same flight ready to document his historic return. What transpired in the next few moments would shock the Philippines and the international community.

As Aquino descended the aircraft’s stairs onto the tarmac, surrounded by military escorts assigned by the Marcos government’s Aviation Security Command (AVSECOM), a single gunshot rang out. Aquino fell face-down onto the tarmac, killed instantly by a bullet to the back of the head. Almost immediately, more shots were fired by the military escorts, killing Rolando Galman, a man in blue airport maintenance overalls who was positioned near the stairs.

The official government version, disseminated within hours, claimed that Galman was a communist hitman who had somehow infiltrated the tight security cordon and shot Aquino, only to be swiftly gunned down by the security detail. This narrative was immediately met with widespread skepticism and disbelief, both domestically and internationally.

Key points of contention included:

The Implausibility: How could a lone gunman penetrate the multi-layered security surrounding Aquino?
Witness Accounts: Journalists and other passengers aboard the plane reported hearing the first shot before Aquino had reached the bottom of the stairs and before Galman was visible to them. Many heard the military shouting “Pusila! Pusila!” (Shoot! Shoot!) immediately after the first shot, followed by a volley of gunfire directed at Galman.
Forensic Evidence: Later analysis suggested the fatal shot entered the back of Aquino’s head and exited through his chin, indicating a downward trajectory consistent with being shot while still on the stairs, not by someone level with him or below him on the tarmac.
Galman’s Background: Investigations revealed Galman had alleged ties to the military, not communist insurgents, further undermining the official story.

The Tarmac assassination at Manila International Airport was not just the killing of one man; it was an attack on the hope for peaceful political change. The brazenness of the act, carried out in broad daylight at the nation’s premier airport, sent a chilling message but also ignited a firestorm of public outrage. The airport, under its code MNL, became an instant symbol of the regime’s brutality and the sacrifice made for freedom.

The Search for Truth: The Agrava Commission

The immediate aftermath of the Ninoy Aquino assassination was marked by shock, grief, and simmering anger. The Marcos government, facing intense domestic and international pressure, was forced to launch an investigation. Initially, Ferdinand Marcos created a commission headed by Chief Justice Enrique Fernando, but its credibility was immediately questioned due to Fernando’s perceived closeness to the regime. Public outcry led to its dissolution and the formation of a new, independent fact-finding board.

This board became known as the Agrava Commission, named after its chairwoman, retired Justice Corazon Juliano-Agrava. The commission included four other members from the private sector: lawyer Luciano E. Salazar, businessman Dante G. Santos, labor leader Ernesto F. Herrera, and educator Amado C. Dizon. Their mandate was to investigate the circumstances surrounding the assassination of Benigno Aquino Jr. and the subsequent killing of Rolando Galman.

The Agrava Commission conducted public hearings over several months, interviewing hundreds of witnesses, including military personnel, airport employees, journalists, passengers, and forensic experts. Their proceedings were closely followed by the public and the media, offering a rare glimpse into the workings of the state under Marcos.

Findings and Controversy

In October 1984, the Agrava Commission released its findings, but controversially, it was split.

The Majority Report: Signed by the four male members of the commission, this report concluded that there was a military conspiracy behind the assassination. It rejected the government’s theory that Rolando Galman was the lone communist gunman and instead implicated several high-ranking military officers, including General Fabian Ver (Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and a close Marcos ally), Major General Prospero Olivas (Chief of the Philippine Constabulary Metropolitan Command), and Brigadier General Luther Custodio (Head of AVSECOM), along with numerous other soldiers present on the tarmac. The report meticulously detailed inconsistencies in the military testimonies and forensic evidence pointing towards a coordinated plot executed by Aquino’s security detail.
The Agrava Report (Minority Report): Chairwoman Agrava submitted her own separate report. While she agreed that Galman was not the primary assassin and that Aquino was killed by the military escorts, she concluded that the conspiracy was limited to General Custodio and the soldiers directly involved on the tarmac. She controversially cleared General Ver, citing insufficient evidence directly linking him to the plot.

Despite the split, the overwhelming conclusion was that elements within the Philippine military were responsible for the Tarmac assassination. The findings, particularly the majority report, directly challenged the highest levels of the Marcos regime.

Trials and Justice Denied

Based on the Agrava Commission reports, charges were filed against General Ver, General Olivas, General Custodio, and numerous other soldiers before the Sandiganbayan (a special anti-graft court). However, in December 1985, the Sandiganbayan acquitted all the accused, citing insufficient evidence. A key factor in the acquittal was the Supreme Court’s earlier ruling that testimonies given by the accused military officers during the Agrava Commission hearings (under a promise of immunity from self-incrimination granted by Marcos’ decree creating the commission) could not be used against them in court.

This verdict was met with widespread condemnation and further fueled public anger, reinforcing the perception that the justice system was incapable of holding the powerful accountable under the Marcos regime. It became another crucial grievance leading towards the People Power Revolution. After the fall of Marcos, the Supreme Court ordered a retrial. In 1990, General Custodio and 15 other soldiers were convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment, though the masterminds behind the plot remained unidentified and unpunished in the eyes of many.

The Agrava Commission, despite its internal split and the initial failure of the justice system, played a crucial role. Its public investigation exposed the lies of the official narrative and confirmed the suspicions of millions, solidifying the belief that the regime itself was culpable in the murder of its chief rival.

From Grief to Defiance: The People Awaken

The Ninoy Aquino assassination proved to be a profound miscalculation by its perpetrators. Instead of silencing the opposition, it ignited a nationwide movement for change. The outpouring of grief was immense. An estimated two million Filipinos lined the streets of Metro Manila for Ninoy’s funeral procession on August 31, 1983, turning it into one of the largest peaceful demonstrations in the country’s history. It was a silent, sorrowful, yet defiant display of solidarity against the regime.

Ninoy’s widow, Corazon Aquino, known as “Cory,” emerged as the reluctant but powerful symbol of the emboldened opposition. A devout, unassuming homemaker thrust into the political spotlight by tragedy, she embodied moral integrity and became the unifying figure that the fragmented anti-Marcos forces desperately needed. Yellow ribbons and confetti, symbols associated with Ninoy’s hoped-for return (“Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree”), became ubiquitous symbols of protest.

The assassination galvanized various sectors of society:

The Catholic Church: Led by figures like Cardinal Jaime Sin, Archbishop of Manila, the Church became increasingly vocal in its criticism of the regime’s human rights abuses and lack of legitimacy.
The Business Community: Disenchanted by cronyism and the worsening economic crisis (exacerbated by capital flight following the assassination), segments of the business elite began supporting the opposition.
Civil Society: Non-governmental organizations, student groups, and professional associations became more active in demanding political reforms and accountability.
The “Alternative” Press: Despite government restrictions, courageous journalists and publications (often dubbed the “mosquito press”) worked tirelessly to report on the assassination’s aftermath, the Agrava Commission, and growing protests, countering state propaganda.

The period between 1983 and 1986 saw escalating protests, boycotts, and civil disobedience campaigns. The political landscape had irrevocably shifted. The fear that had permeated Martial Law Philippines began to dissipate, replaced by a growing sense of empowerment and collective will.

The Snap Election and the Road to EDSA

Facing mounting pressure domestically and internationally (particularly from the United States, a long-time ally concerned about instability and the communist insurgency), Ferdinand Marcos sought to re-legitimize his rule. In late 1985, he unexpectedly called for a snap presidential election, scheduled for February 7, 1986, believing he could easily defeat the still-organizing opposition.

The opposition, after much deliberation, unified behind Corazon Aquino as their presidential candidate, with Salvador “Doy” Laurel as her running mate. The campaign was intense and fraught with tension. Cory Aquino drew massive, enthusiastic crowds, campaigning on themes of restoring Philippine democracy, justice for Ninoy, and an end to corruption. Marcos, relying on his formidable political machinery and control over state resources, campaigned on his experience and warnings of communist takeover should the opposition win.

The election itself was marred by widespread allegations of fraud, vote-buying, intimidation, and violence orchestrated by Marcos supporters. The official government tallying body, the Commission on Elections (COMELEC), showed Marcos leading. However, a dramatic walkout by dozens of COMELEC computer technicians, protesting the deliberate manipulation of results, exposed the fraud to the world. Simultaneously, the National Citizens’ Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL), an accredited independent poll watchdog, showed Corazon Aquino winning decisively based on its quick count.

Cory Aquino refused to concede, declared victory based on the NAMFREL results, and called for a nationwide campaign of civil disobedience, including boycotts of crony-controlled businesses and banks. The nation stood at a precipice, with two opposing claims to the presidency and the potential for violent confrontation looming.

People Power Revolution: The Nation Reclaims Freedom

The tipping point came on February 22, 1986. Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile, one of Marcos’s longest-serving allies and the architect of Martial Law, and Lieutenant General Fidel V. Ramos, Vice Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces and head of the Philippine Constabulary, broke away from the Marcos regime. Citing massive election fraud and a plot by Marcos loyalists (allegedly led by General Ver) to implicate them in a coup attempt, Enrile and Ramos ensconced themselves in Camp Aguinaldo and Camp Crame, the military and police headquarters along Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) in Metro Manila. They announced their withdrawal of support for Marcos and pledged allegiance to Corazon Aquino.

Facing imminent attack from Marcos loyalist forces, Enrile and Ramos made a desperate plea for public support. Cardinal Jaime Sin went on Radio Veritas, the influential Catholic radio station, urging Filipinos to go to EDSA to protect the reformist soldiers, to form a human barricade against Marcos’s tanks and troops.

What followed was extraordinary. Hundreds of thousands, eventually swelling to millions, of unarmed civilians responded to the call. They converged on EDSA, bringing food, prayers, flowers, and rosaries. Nuns knelt before tanks, families offered food to soldiers, and people linked arms, creating an impenetrable sea of humanity. They occupied the stretch of highway between the two camps, effectively shielding Enrile, Ramos, and the growing number of military defectors.

This spontaneous, peaceful uprising became known as the People Power Revolution or the EDSA Revolution. For four days (February 22-25, 1986), the world watched captivated as ordinary Filipinos peacefully defied a dictator. Despite orders from Marcos to disperse the crowds, potentially using force, many soldiers found themselves unwilling or unable to fire on the unarmed civilians. Key military units defected to the rebel side. US support for Marcos evaporated, with Washington urging him to step down peacefully.

On the evening of February 25, 1986, Ferdinand Marcos and his family fled Malacañang Palace aboard US Air Force helicopters, heading into exile in Hawaii. Simultaneously, Corazon Aquino took her oath of office as the legitimate President of the Philippines. The dictatorship had crumbled, not through violence, but through the overwhelming moral force and courage of the Filipino people.

Timeline of Key Events: From Assassination to Revolution

Date	Event	Significance
Aug 21, 1983	Benigno Aquino Jr. is assassinated upon arrival at Manila International Airport (MIA).	Catalyst for widespread opposition against the Marcos regime.
Oct 1983	Agrava Commission is formed to investigate the assassination.	Independent body sought to uncover the truth behind the killing.
Oct 1984	Agrava Commission releases conflicting reports (Majority vs Minority), implicating the military.	Confirmed military involvement, deepened public distrust in the regime.
Dec 1985	Sandiganbayan acquits all accused military personnel in the Aquino-Galman case.	Fueled outrage over perceived injustice and impunity.
Nov 1985	Marcos calls for a snap presidential election.	Attempt to regain legitimacy amid growing pressure.
Feb 7, 1986	Snap Presidential Election held.	Marred by massive fraud and violence; both Marcos and Aquino claim victory.
Feb 9, 1986	COMELEC computer technicians walk out, protesting results manipulation.	Exposed election fraud to the public and the world.
Feb 16, 1986	Corazon Aquino leads a “Tagumpay ng Bayan” (People’s Victory) rally, calls for civil disobedience.	Escalated peaceful protest against the fraudulent election results.
Feb 22, 1986	Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile & Gen. Fidel V. Ramos break from Marcos, call for support.	Military defection signals the beginning of the end for the regime.
Feb 22-25, 1986	People Power Revolution (EDSA Revolution) unfolds. Millions peacefully block Marcos troops.	Unarmed civilians protect military rebels, leading to the regime’s collapse.
Feb 25, 1986	Marcos family flees into exile; Corazon Aquino takes oath as President.	End of the Marcos dictatorship; restoration of Philippine democracy.
Feb 1987	MIA is officially renamed Ninoy Aquino International Airport (MNL).	Airport formally linked to the martyred hero and the revolution he inspired.

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Legacy: An Airport’s Name, A Nation’s Memory

The fall of Ferdinand Marcos ushered in a new era for the Philippines. The Corazon Aquino administration faced immense challenges: restoring democratic institutions, drafting a new constitution (ratified in 1987), reviving a battered economy, dealing with coup attempts from military factions, and addressing deep-seated social inequalities. Yet, the transition marked a triumphant return to Philippine democracy, achieved through remarkable, non-violent popular action.

In recognition of the pivotal event that occurred on its tarmac and catalyzed this change, Manila International Airport was officially renamed Ninoy Aquino International Airport (MNL) in February 1987 through Republic Act No. 6639. The Philippines Airport Code MNL thus became forever intertwined with the memory of Benigno Aquino Jr. and the struggle for freedom he represented.

The legacy of the Ninoy Aquino assassination and the People Power Revolution remains potent in the Philippines. It serves as:

A Symbol of Sacrifice: Ninoy Aquino’s death is remembered as a martyrdom for democracy.
A Testament to People Power: The EDSA Revolution is celebrated globally as a prime example of successful, non-violent regime change driven by popular will.
A Reminder of the Fragility of Democracy: The subsequent decades have shown that democratic gains need constant vigilance and protection against corruption, authoritarian tendencies, and historical revisionism.
A Marker in History: The events of 1983-1986 are defining moments in Philippine history 20th century, shaping contemporary political discourse and national identity.

The tarmac of Ninoy Aquino International Airport (MNL) is more than just asphalt; it is historical ground. It stands as a solemn reminder of the cost of freedom and the extraordinary power of ordinary people to reclaim it.

Key Takeaways:

Ninoy Aquino International Airport (MNL), formerly Manila International Airport, was the site of the Ninoy Aquino assassination on August 21, 1983.
The assassination occurred during the authoritarian rule of Ferdinand Marcos, specifically following the period of Martial Law Philippines.
The Agrava Commission investigated the Tarmac assassination and implicated elements of the Philippine military, contradicting the official government narrative.
Aquino’s death galvanized widespread opposition, led by his widow Corazon Aquino, culminating in the fraudulent 1986 Snap Election.
Military defections by Juan Ponce Enrile and Fidel V. Ramos sparked the People Power Revolution (EDSA Revolution), a massive, peaceful civilian uprising.
The EDSA Revolution led to the ousting of Marcos and the restoration of Philippine democracy under President Corazon Aquino.
The airport was renamed in honor of Benigno Aquino Jr., cementing the link between the Philippines Airport Code MNL and this crucial turning point in Philippine history 20th century.

Conclusion

A Philippines Airport Code, typically a simple identifier for travelers and logistics, rarely carries the weight of history. Yet, MNL, designating Ninoy Aquino International Airport, stands as a powerful exception. It marks the spot where the trajectory of a nation dramatically shifted. The assassination of Benigno Aquino Jr. on its tarmac on August 21, 1983, intended to silence dissent against the Ferdinand Marcos regime and Martial Law Philippines, instead became the spark that ignited a revolution.

The subsequent investigation by the Agrava Commission, despite its controversies, exposed the rot within the system. The courage of Corazon Aquino provided a focal point for national aspiration. The fraudulent Snap Election became the final insult. And ultimately, the confluence of military defection (Juan Ponce Enrile, Fidel V. Ramos) and overwhelming civilian courage during the People Power Revolution (EDSA Revolution) demonstrated the profound potential of non-violent resistance.

The journey from the Tarmac assassination at Manila International Airport to the restoration of Philippine democracy is a defining narrative of Philippine history 20th century. It underscores the immense sacrifice required for freedom and the enduring power of collective action. The renaming of the airport ensures that MNL serves not just as a code for Manila, but as a perpetual reminder of a hero’s sacrifice and a people’s triumph. The story etched onto the grounds of this airport continues to resonate, urging vigilance in safeguarding the democratic principles for which so much was risked.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):

Q1: Who ordered the assassination of Ninoy Aquino?

While the Agrava Commission implicated high-ranking military officials and the subsequent retrial convicted 16 soldiers for the conspiracy, the ultimate mastermind(s) who gave the final order for the Ninoy Aquino assassination has never been definitively and judicially proven. Speculation has persisted regarding the involvement of higher authorities within the Ferdinand Marcos regime, including potentially Marcos himself or his wife Imelda, but conclusive evidence establishing this in court remains elusive.

Q2: What was the significance of the People Power Revolution (EDSA Revolution)?

The People Power Revolution was significant for several reasons:
- It successfully overthrew the 20-year rule of Ferdinand Marcos through largely peaceful means.
- It restored Philippine democracy after years of authoritarianism under Martial Law Philippines.
- It became an inspiration for non-violent democratic movements globally.
- It demonstrated the power of civilian solidarity, the Church, and defecting military elements (Juan Ponce Enrile, Fidel V. Ramos) working together.

Q3: Why was Manila International Airport (MIA) renamed Ninoy Aquino International Airport (MNL)?

The airport was renamed in February 1987 to honor Senator Benigno Aquino Jr., who was assassinated on its tarmac on August 21, 1983. The renaming serves as a permanent memorial to his sacrifice, which became a catalyst for the People Power Revolution and the restoration of democracy. It explicitly links the airport (MNL) to this pivotal moment in Philippine history 20th century.

Q4: What was Martial Law in the Philippines?

Martial Law Philippines refers to the period from September 21, 1972, to January 17, 1981 (though Marcos retained decree powers until 1986), when President Ferdinand Marcos ruled by decree. It was characterized by the suspension of civil liberties, suppression of political dissent, media censorship, widespread human rights abuses, and the consolidation of authoritarian power. Marcos cited communist threats and civil disorder as justifications, but critics argue it was primarily used to perpetuate his rule beyond constitutional limits.

Q5: What was the role of Corazon Aquino in these events?

Corazon Aquino, the widow of Benigno Aquino Jr., became the unifying figurehead of the opposition movement following her husband’s assassination. Reluctantly agreeing to run against Ferdinand Marcos in the 1986 snap election, she became the symbol of the fight for Philippine democracy. After the fraudulent election, her calls for civil disobedience and the support she garnered were crucial elements leading to the People Power Revolution, after which she assumed the presidency.

Q6: Is MNL the only Philippines Airport Code?

No, MNL is the specific IATA code for Ninoy Aquino International Airport in Manila. The Philippines has numerous airports, each with its own unique airport code (e.g., CEB for Mactan-Cebu, CRK for Clark, DVO for Davao). This article focuses on MNL because of its unique historical significance related to the Aquino assassination and the subsequent EDSA Revolution.

Sources:

Bello, Walden, David Kinley, and Elaine Elinson. Development Debacle: The World Bank in the Philippines. Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1982. (Provides context on the economic situation under Marcos).
Bonner, Raymond. Waltzing with a Dictator: The Marcoses and the Making of American Policy. Times Books, 1987. (Details US-Philippines relations during the Marcos era and the assassination’s aftermath).
Chapman, William. Inside the Philippine Revolution. W. W. Norton & Company, 1987. (Journalistic account of the events leading up to and including the People Power Revolution).
Conclusions and Recommendations of the Agrava Fact-Finding Board (Majority and Minority Reports), 1984. (Primary source documents detailing the findings of the investigation into the assassination). Available in archives and historical collections.
Hamilton-Paterson, James. America’s Boy: The Marcoses and the Philippines. Faber & Faber, 1998. (Critical biography and analysis of the Marcos regime).
Karnow, Stanley. In Our Image: America’s Empire in the Philippines. Random House, 1989. (Provides broader historical context, including the Marcos years and the transition).
Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. (Archives contain decrees, laws like R.A. 6639 renaming the airport, and official statements from the period). https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/
Thompson, Mark R. The Anti-Marcos Struggle: Personalistic Rule and Democratic Transition in the Philippines. Yale University Press, 1995. (Academic analysis of the opposition movement and the transition to democracy).

Category: Contemporary Period (1986-Present)