Establishing Self-Rule in the Philippines: The Commonwealth Era

The history of the Philippines is a compelling narrative of struggle, resilience, and the persistent pursuit of nationhood. For centuries under colonial powers—first Spain, then the United States—the Filipino people harbored an unyielding desire for sovereignty. The period from 1935 to 1946, known as the Philippine Commonwealth Era, stands as a pivotal chapter in this journey, representing a crucial transition towards full Philippine Independence. This era was specifically designed to prepare the nation for complete self-governance after decades of US Colonial Rule. It was a period of significant political development, economic challenges, social reforms, and ultimately, the devastating crucible of World War II and the Japanese Occupation. Understanding the Philippine Commonwealth Era is essential to grasping the foundation of the modern Philippine Republic and the complex legacy of its path to Establishing Self-Rule in the Philippines.

This article will delve into the origins of the Commonwealth, examine its political structure under the 1935 Constitution, highlight the roles of key figures like Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, explore the economic and social landscape, recount the profound disruption of World War II, and analyze the ultimate fulfillment of the promise of Establishing Self-Rule in the Philippines with the declaration of independence in 1946.

The Road to the Commonwealth: Preceding Decades and Key Legislation

The concept of an autonomous or independent Philippines began gaining significant traction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Following the Spanish-American War (1898) and the Philippine-American War (1899-1902), the United States established its rule over the archipelago. While initial American policy was characterized by pacification efforts and the suppression of the independence movement, there was also a stated commitment to eventually grant Filipinos self-governance.

Early steps towards this goal included the establishment of the Philippine Assembly in 1907, followed by the creation of the bicameral Philippine Legislature under the Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 (also known as the Jones Law). The Jones Law promised independence “as soon as a stable government can be established therein,” fueling Filipino aspirations and intensifying political efforts for self-rule. Filipino leaders, notably Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, who would later become central figures in the Commonwealth, played prominent roles in the Philippine Legislature, advocating for greater autonomy and independence missions to the United States.

The push for independence in the United States Congress gained momentum in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Several factors contributed to this, including economic protectionist sentiments in the US seeking to limit competition from Philippine agricultural products (like sugar, coconut oil, and abaca), the growing cost of administering the colony, and the persistent lobbying efforts by Filipino leaders.

This lobbying led to the passage of the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act in 1933. This act proposed granting the Philippines independence after a ten-year transition period as a commonwealth. However, it contained provisions for retaining military and naval bases and imposing quotas and tariffs on Philippine exports to the US after independence, which proved contentious. The Philippine Legislature, under the leadership of Manuel L. Quezon, rejected the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act primarily due to objections to the retention of military bases and certain economic clauses, as well as internal political rivalries within the Nacionalista Party, specifically between the Quezon and Osmeña factions.

Following the rejection, Quezon led a new mission to the United States, resulting in the passage of the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934. This act was largely similar to the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act, also providing for a ten-year commonwealth period leading to independence. Crucially, while it still allowed for the retention of military bases, it stipulated that their disposition would be subject to future negotiations between the US and the independent Philippines. The Tydings-McDuffie Act was accepted by the Philippine Legislature and signed into law, setting the stage for the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines.

Legislation	Year Passed	Key Provisions	Fate in the Philippines
Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act	1933	10-year Commonwealth, eventual independence, retention of US bases, trade quotas.	Rejected by Legislature
Tydings-McDuffie Act	1934	10-year Commonwealth, eventual independence, future negotiations on US bases, trade quotas.	Accepted by Legislature

Export to Sheets

The acceptance of the Tydings-McDuffie Act mandated the drafting of a constitution for the new Commonwealth government and the holding of elections. This marked a definitive step towards Establishing Self-Rule in the Philippines, though under the continued oversight of the United States.

The 1935 Constitution and the Structure of the Commonwealth Government

A crucial requirement of the Tydings-McDuffie Act was the drafting and ratification of a constitution that would serve as the fundamental law of the Commonwealth and the future independent republic. A Constitutional Convention was convened in 1934, composed of elected delegates from across the archipelago. The convention drew inspiration from various sources, including the US Constitution, the Malolos Constitution (of the First Philippine Republic), and other democratic frameworks.

The resulting 1935 Constitution established a republican state with a presidential system, a clear separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and a bill of rights guaranteeing fundamental freedoms. Key features included:

Executive Branch: Vested in a President elected for a six-year term, initially without re-election, though this was later amended. The President served as the head of state and head of government.
Legislative Branch: Initially a unicameral National Assembly, later amended to a bicameral Congress consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. This body was responsible for enacting laws.
Judicial Branch: Headed by the Supreme Court, with lower courts established by law. The judiciary was independent and tasked with interpreting laws and the constitution.

The 1935 Constitution also included provisions on citizenship, national territory, suffrage (initially limited, later expanded to include women), and the conservation of natural resources. It explicitly recognized the sovereignty of the Filipino people and the goal of ultimate independence.

Despite the establishment of a Filipino-led government, the Commonwealth was not fully sovereign. It remained under the tutelage of the United States. A critical aspect of this relationship was the presence of an American High Commissioner, who served as the representative of the US President in the Philippines. The High Commissioner held significant oversight powers, particularly in matters affecting US interests and foreign affairs. Legislation passed by the Philippine Legislature could be reviewed and potentially vetoed by the US President through the High Commissioner. Furthermore, foreign relations remained under the purview of the United States.

The structure of the Commonwealth Government represented a significant advancement in Establishing Self-Rule in the Philippines. Filipinos were now in charge of administering most internal affairs, including education, health, public works, and justice. This period allowed Filipino leaders and administrators to gain invaluable experience in governance, public administration, and nation-building, preparing them for the responsibilities of full sovereignty. The 1935 Constitution itself would serve as the foundational legal document for the independent Republic until later revisions.

Key Figures of the Commonwealth: Leadership in a Transitional Era

The success and direction of the Philippine Commonwealth Era were profoundly shaped by the leaders who steered it through its formative years and the subsequent challenges of war. Two figures stand out as the titans of this period: Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña.

Manuel L. Quezon served as the first and most dominant President of the Commonwealth. A charismatic orator and shrewd politician, Quezon had been a leading figure in the independence movement for decades, serving as Senate President prior to the Commonwealth. His acceptance of the Tydings-McDuffie Act solidified his position as the paramount leader.

Quezon’s presidency (1935-1944) was marked by a strong focus on strengthening the central government, promoting national unity, and implementing key social and economic programs. He championed the adoption of a National Language (Tagalog-based Filipino), initiated programs aimed at Social Justice, and sought to diversify the Philippine economy, which was heavily reliant on agriculture and trade with the US. Quezon’s leadership style was often described as assertive and centralized, driven by a vision of a strong, independent Philippine nation. He played a crucial role in navigating the complex relationship with the United States and preparing the administrative machinery for full sovereignty.

Sergio Osmeña was Quezon’s long-time political rival and partner. Having served as Speaker of the Philippine Assembly and later Senate President alongside Quezon, Osmeña became the first Vice President of the Commonwealth. Despite their political differences, they often collaborated on the goal of independence. Osmeña’s leadership was characterized by a more cautious and deliberative approach compared to Quezon’s dynamism.

Upon Quezon’s death in exile during World War II, Sergio Osmeña ascended to the presidency of the Commonwealth government-in-exile. He returned with General Douglas MacArthur during the liberation of the Philippines, leading the re-establishment of the Commonwealth government on Philippine soil. Osmeña faced the immense challenge of post-war reconstruction, political stabilization, and preparing the nation for the imminent granting of independence in 1946.

Other notable figures contributed significantly to the Commonwealth, including José P. Laurel (who headed the Japanese-sponsored Second Republic during the occupation, a controversial period in Philippine history), Claro M. Recto (prominent statesman and legal mind), and various members of the National Assembly and later Congress. The American High Commissioners, such as Frank Murphy and Paul V. McNutt, also played significant roles in overseeing the Commonwealth government and facilitating the Transition to Independence.

The interplay between these Filipino leaders, their political factions (primarily within the dominant Nacionalista Party and its occasional coalitions like the Nacionalista-Democrata Coalition), and their relationship with American officials defined the political landscape of the era, shaping the policies and trajectory of the Commonwealth Government.

Political Landscape and Governance Under the Commonwealth

The political landscape of the Philippine Commonwealth Era was characterized by the dominance of the Nacionalista Party and the efforts to build a stable and functional democratic government under the framework of the 1935 Constitution.

From the outset, the Nacionalista Party, led by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, held significant political power, winning the first national elections for the Commonwealth in 1935. Quezon was elected President and Osmeña Vice President, cementing the party’s control over the executive and legislative branches. While other political groups existed, they struggled to mount a significant challenge to the well-established Nacionalista political machine.

The Commonwealth Government focused on strengthening democratic institutions and processes. Elections were held regularly for the President, Vice President, and members of the Philippine Legislature. Efforts were made to expand suffrage, although universal suffrage, particularly for women, was a process that unfolded over time, with women gaining the right to vote and run for office during this era after a plebiscite.

One of the significant shifts in governance was the move towards greater centralization of power in the executive branch under President Quezon. Citing the need for efficiency and strong leadership in preparing the nation for independence, Quezon consolidated authority, sometimes drawing criticism from political opponents. This centralization was partly reflected in the initial unicameral structure of the National Assembly, which streamlined the legislative process.

The role of the American High Commissioners was a constant reminder of the Commonwealth’s transitional status. The High Commissioner served as a liaison between the US and Philippine governments and had powers to intervene in certain matters, particularly those involving foreign relations and potentially those threatening US interests. This oversight, while a condition of the Tydings-McDuffie Act, also sometimes led to friction and highlighted the limitations of the self-rule granted during this period.

Efforts were also made to improve the civil service and public administration. The government sought to professionalize the bureaucracy and make it more responsive to the needs of the Filipino people. This was a critical aspect of building the capacity for self-governance.

However, the political system was not without its challenges. Patronage politics remained prevalent, and the concentration of power in the executive raised concerns about potential authoritarianism. Agrarian unrest, particularly in Central Luzon, posed a persistent challenge, reflecting deep-seated social and economic inequalities that the government attempted, with limited success, to address through various programs. The government also had to navigate internal political rivalries within the dominant party and prepare for the inevitable transfer of power upon independence. The Philippine Legislature played a vital role in shaping laws, debating national issues, and serving as a check on executive power, contributing to the development of legislative governance in the Philippines.

Economic Policies and Development: Navigating Dependence and Pursuing Growth

The economic landscape of the Philippine Commonwealth Era was largely shaped by its historical ties to the United States and the provisions of the Tydings-McDuffie Act. For decades, the Philippine economy had been closely integrated with that of the US, primarily as a supplier of raw materials (like sugar, coconut products, abaca, and minerals) and a market for American manufactured goods. This relationship, often described as one of free trade, created a certain level of prosperity for export-oriented sectors but also fostered a dependency on the US market and limited the development of diversified industries.

The Tydings-McDuffie Act introduced limitations on this free trade relationship as part of the Transition to Independence. While duty-free access to the US market for Philippine exports was maintained during the Commonwealth period, quotas were imposed on key products like sugar, coconut oil, and cordage. This was intended to protect American producers but also served as a signal to the Philippines that it needed to prepare for a future where this preferential access might be reduced or eliminated.

The Commonwealth Government recognized the need to diversify the economy and reduce dependence on agricultural exports. Under President Quezon, initiatives were launched to promote industrialization, develop infrastructure (roads, ports, irrigation systems), and improve agricultural productivity. The government established institutions like the National Economic Council to formulate economic policies and promoted the development of new industries.

However, these efforts faced significant hurdles. Capital for industrial development was limited, and the continued dominance of the export-oriented agricultural sector meant that powerful economic interests often resisted changes that might disrupt the status quo. Furthermore, the global economic challenges of the Great Depression and the looming threat of World War II constrained economic planning and investment.

Social issues were closely intertwined with economic challenges. The concentration of land ownership in the hands of a few elite families contributed to widespread rural poverty and agrarian unrest. The government implemented some Agrarian Reform programs aimed at improving the lot of tenant farmers, such as the creation of the National Land Settlement Administration to open up new agricultural areas and resettle landless farmers. However, these programs were often underfunded and faced strong opposition from powerful landowners, resulting in limited impact on the overall agrarian problem.

The economic policies of the Commonwealth were a delicate balancing act – attempting to leverage the existing relationship with the US for continued economic stability while simultaneously trying to lay the groundwork for a more independent and diversified economy capable of supporting a sovereign nation. The outbreak of World War II would, however, completely disrupt these plans and devastate the Philippine economy, necessitating significant Post-War Reconstruction efforts.

Social Reforms and Challenges: Pursuing Social Justice and National Development

Beyond political and economic development, the Philippine Commonwealth Era also saw significant efforts to address social issues and improve the lives of Filipinos as part of the broader goal of Establishing Self-Rule in the Philippines.

Social Justice became a key theme under President Quezon’s administration. He articulated a vision of a government that would be more responsive to the needs of the common people and work to reduce inequalities. Initiatives included:

Education: Expanding access to public education was a priority. New schools were built, teacher training was promoted, and efforts were made to standardize the curriculum. English remained the primary medium of instruction, but there was also a growing recognition of the need to incorporate local languages.
Labor: The government enacted legislation to improve labor conditions, including setting minimum wages, regulating working hours, and recognizing the right of workers to organize. The Department of Labor was strengthened to enforce these regulations.
Health and Welfare: Public health programs were expanded to combat diseases and improve sanitation. Rural health units were established, and efforts were made to provide basic medical services to underserved populations. Social welfare programs, though limited in scope, were also initiated.
National Language: One of Quezon’s most significant social and cultural initiatives was the promotion of a National Language. Recognizing the linguistic diversity of the archipelago as a potential barrier to national unity, the government established the Institute of National Language and selected Tagalog as the basis for the national language, which would eventually evolve into Filipino. This was a crucial step in fostering a shared national identity.

Despite these efforts, the Commonwealth government faced immense social challenges. Poverty remained widespread, particularly in rural areas. The agrarian problem persisted, with tenant farmers often living in precarious conditions. Social inequalities were deeply entrenched, reflecting historical power structures.

The rise of peasant movements and labor unions, sometimes with radical leanings, highlighted the social tensions of the era. While the government sought to address grievances through reforms, it also sometimes resorted to suppressing dissent, particularly when it was perceived as a threat to stability.

The cultural landscape was a mix of influences. American culture continued to have a significant impact through education, media, and popular culture. However, there was also a burgeoning sense of Filipino identity and a growing interest in preserving and promoting indigenous arts, literature, and traditions. The development of a National Language was central to this cultural awakening.

The social reforms undertaken during the Commonwealth were important steps towards building a more equitable society, but they were often limited by resource constraints, political opposition from vested interests, and the sheer scale of the problems. The outbreak of World War II would bring untold suffering and exacerbate many of these social challenges, requiring massive efforts for recovery and rebuilding in the Post-War Reconstruction period.

The Shadow of War: The Commonwealth and World War II

The Philippine Commonwealth Era, intended as a peaceful Transition to Independence, was tragically interrupted by the outbreak of World War II. The war had a catastrophic impact on the Philippines, halting the progress towards self-rule and plunging the nation into a period of immense suffering, destruction, and political upheaval.

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Japan launched an invasion of the Philippines. Despite fierce resistance from combined Filipino and American forces, including the Philippine Army under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, the Japanese forces quickly gained ground. Manila was declared an open city, and the Commonwealth government, including President Manuel L. Quezon and Vice President Sergio Osmeña, was forced to evacuate.

The Japanese established a military administration and later sponsored the creation of the Second Philippine Republic in 1943, headed by Jose P. Laurel. However, this government lacked widespread legitimacy and was largely seen by Filipinos as a puppet regime.

The period of Japanese Occupation (1942-1945) was marked by brutality, economic exploitation, and immense hardship for the Filipino people. Thousands of soldiers and civilians perished, including those who suffered during the infamous Bataan Death March in April 1942, a forced relocation of Filipino and American prisoners of war that resulted in thousands of deaths due to starvation, disease, and abuse.

Resistance movements, both organized guerrilla forces and informal groups, emerged throughout the archipelago, harassing Japanese forces and providing intelligence to the Allied powers. The loyalty of the Filipino people to the Commonwealth government and the ideal of independence remained strong, despite the harsh realities of occupation.

Meanwhile, the Commonwealth Government operated in exile in the United States. President Quezon continued to advocate for the Philippines and participated in Allied war planning. Upon Quezon’s death in August 1944, Vice President Sergio Osmeña became President of the Commonwealth government-in-exile.

The liberation of the Philippines began with the landing of Allied forces led by General MacArthur in Leyte in October 1944. President Osmeña returned with MacArthur, symbolizing the re-establishment of the legitimate Commonwealth Government on Philippine soil. The fighting was intense and protracted, culminating in the devastating Battle of Manila in early 1945, which resulted in widespread destruction of the city and a horrific loss of civilian life.

The war years were a brutal test for the Filipino people and the Commonwealth Government. While the path to independence was temporarily derailed, the shared experience of suffering, resistance, and eventual liberation further solidified a sense of national identity and the resolve to achieve full sovereignty. The war left the Philippines devastated, requiring massive efforts for Post-War Reconstruction.

Re-establishment and Final Years: Towards Full Independence

With the liberation of the Philippines from Japanese Occupation in 1945, the Commonwealth Government under President Sergio Osmeña faced the monumental task of rebuilding a nation ravaged by war. Cities lay in ruins, the economy was in shambles, infrastructure was destroyed, and the population had endured years of hardship and violence.

The re-established Commonwealth Government worked with the United States to provide relief and begin the process of Post-War Reconstruction. This involved restoring essential services, rebuilding infrastructure, providing aid to the population, and re-establishing the functions of government. The political landscape also had to be re-stabilized, dealing with issues of collaboration during the occupation and the resurgence of political activity after years of wartime suppression.

Despite the immense challenges, the commitment to granting Philippine Independence on July 4, 1946, as promised by the Tydings-McDuffie Act, remained firm. The final years of the Philippine Commonwealth Era were focused on preparing for this transition.

Elections were held in April 1946 to choose the leaders of the future independent republic. Manuel Roxas, who had served under Quezon and Osmeña but was also linked to the wartime government, ran against Osmeña. Roxas won the presidency, becoming the last President of the Commonwealth and the first President of the independent Third Republic.

The United States Congress passed the Philippine Trade Act of 1946, commonly known as the Bell Trade Act. This act stipulated the terms of trade between the US and the Philippines after independence, including continued preferential trade but also requiring the Philippines to amend its constitution to grant American citizens and corporations parity rights in the exploitation of Philippine natural resources. The acceptance of the Bell Trade Act and the parity rights amendment proved controversial and highlighted the complex economic relationship that would continue even after political independence.

On July 4, 1946, exactly twelve years after the signing of the Tydings-McDuffie Act, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was dissolved, and the independent Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed. The formal ceremony took place at Luneta Park in Manila, marking the culmination of decades of struggle and advocacy for Establishing Self-Rule in the Philippines.

The Philippine Commonwealth Era, though tragically cut short by the war, successfully served its purpose as a Transition to Independence. It provided Filipinos with invaluable experience in self-governance under the 1935 Constitution, developed political institutions, and fostered a stronger sense of national identity. While the challenges of post-war recovery and navigating a complex relationship with the former colonial power lay ahead, the Commonwealth period undeniably laid the essential groundwork for the establishment and survival of the independent Philippine state. The role of leaders like Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, the framework of the Commonwealth Government, and the resilience of the Filipino people during the trials of war were all critical factors in achieving this long-sought goal. The era stands as a testament to the Filipino people’s unwavering resolve for sovereignty after centuries of external control.

Key Takeaways:

The Philippine Commonwealth Era (1935-1946) was a crucial ten-year transition period designed to prepare the Philippines for full independence after US Colonial Rule.
It was established by the Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934), following the rejection of the similar Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act.
The 1935 Constitution provided the legal framework for the Commonwealth Government, establishing a presidential system with a separation of powers.
Key figures like Manuel L. Quezon (first President) and Sergio Osmeña (first Vice President, later President) played pivotal roles in leading the Commonwealth.
The era saw efforts in political development, economic diversification, Social Justice programs, and the promotion of a National Language.
The presence of an American High Commissioner underscored the continued, albeit reduced, US oversight.
World War II and the Japanese Occupation (1942-1945) severely disrupted the Commonwealth, bringing immense suffering and destruction, including events like the Bataan Death March and the Battle of Manila.
The Commonwealth Government operated in exile during the war and was re-established upon liberation.
Despite the war’s devastation, the promise of independence was kept, and the Philippine Independence was formally granted on July 4, 1946.
The Philippine Commonwealth Era provided the essential experience and foundation for Establishing Self-Rule in the Philippines and the subsequent independent republic, though challenges like Post-War Reconstruction and economic dependence persisted.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):

Q: What was the primary purpose of the Philippine Commonwealth Era? A: The primary purpose was to serve as a ten-year transition period to prepare the Philippines for full independence from US Colonial Rule, allowing Filipinos to gain experience in self-governance under the Commonwealth Government structure and the 1935 Constitution.

Q: How did the Tydings-McDuffie Act differ from the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act? A: While largely similar in proposing a ten-year commonwealth and eventual independence, a key difference was that the Tydings-McDuffie Act stipulated that the issue of US military and naval bases would be subject to future negotiations after independence, which was a major point of contention that led to the rejection of the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act by the Philippine Legislature.

Q: Who were the most important leaders during the Commonwealth Period? A: Manuel L. Quezon, the first President, and Sergio Osmeña, the first Vice President and later President, were the most significant Filipino leaders, steering the nation through this critical transition. American figures like the American High Commissioners also held influential positions due to US oversight.

Q: What was the impact of World War II on the Philippine Commonwealth? A: World War II and the Japanese Occupation had a devastating impact, halting the progress of the Commonwealth, causing immense loss of life and destruction, and forcing the government into exile. It severely disrupted the planned Transition to Independence and necessitated massive Post-War Reconstruction efforts.

Q: What was the significance of the 1935 Constitution? A: The 1935 Constitution was the foundational legal document for the Philippine Commonwealth Era and the subsequent independent republic. It established a democratic, republican system of government with a separation of powers, a bill of rights, and provided the framework for Establishing Self-Rule in the Philippines.

Q: When did the Philippine Commonwealth Era end, and what happened next? A: The Philippine Commonwealth Era formally ended on July 4, 1946, when the Philippine Independence was formally proclaimed, establishing the independent Republic of the Philippines. Manuel Roxas, the last Commonwealth President, became the first President of the Third Republic.

Q: What were some of the key challenges faced by the Commonwealth Government? A: Challenges included preparing the nation for full sovereignty, navigating the complex relationship with the United States (including issues like trade and military bases), addressing persistent economic dependence on the US, implementing effective Social Justice and Agrarian Reform programs, fostering national unity through initiatives like the National Language, and most significantly, surviving and recovering from the devastation of World War II and the Japanese Occupation.

Q: What was the role of the American High Commissioner? A: The American High Commissioner was the representative of the US President in the Philippines and had oversight powers over the Commonwealth Government, particularly regarding matters affecting US interests and foreign affairs, serving as a liaison and a reminder of the continued US tutelage during the Transition to Independence.

Sources:

Agoncillo, Teodoro A. History of the Filipino People. 8th ed. Quezon City: Garotech Publishing, 1990. (A widely used textbook on Philippine history covering the Commonwealth period.)
Corpuz, O. D. The Roots of the Filipino Nation. 2 vols. Quezon City: AKLAHI Foundation, 1989. (Provides in-depth analysis of Philippine political history, including the Commonwealth.)
Stanley, Peter W. A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899-1921. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974. (Provides context on the preceding period of US rule.)
Friend, Theodore. Between Two Empires: The Ordeal of the Philippines, 1929-1946. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965. (A classic study focusing on the transition to independence and the war years.)
Philippines. Constitutional Convention (1934-1935). Journal of the Constitutional Convention of the Philippines. Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1964-1966. (Primary source material on the drafting of the 1935 Constitution.)
The Philippine Commonwealth Government. Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. https://www.google.com/search?q=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/the-commonwealth-government/ (Provides an overview and documents related to the Commonwealth period.)
Tydings-McDuffie Act. United States Public Law 73-127, 48 Stat. 456. (The text of the enabling legislation.)
1935 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines. Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. https://www.google.com/search?q=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1935-constitution-2/ (The text of the fundamental law of the Commonwealth.)
Steinberg, David Joel. The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place. 4th ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000. (Offers a concise overview of Philippine history, including the Commonwealth.)
Miller, Stuart Creighton. Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899-1903. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982. (Contextualizes the beginning of US rule and the independence movement.)

(Note: Links provided for Official Gazette resources and US legislation are to government/official sources where accessible. Availability may vary over time.)

Category: American Colonial Period (1901-1946)