Establishing a Haven for Peace: The ARMM is Created

The history of the Philippines, while rich and diverse, is also marked by periods of intense conflict, particularly in its Southern regions. For decades, the quest for self-determination and redress of historical injustices fueled the Moro conflict in Mindanao, a struggle that claimed countless lives and stunted development. Against this backdrop of persistent unrest, the concept of regional autonomy emerged as a potential pathway towards reconciliation and stability. The Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) was established with this ambitious goal: to create a haven for peace and self-governance for the Muslim communities in the Southern Philippines.

This article delves into the complex history of the ARMM, tracing its roots from the historical grievances of the Moro people and the protracted Moro conflict, through the various peace talks and agreements that led to its creation, its challenging existence marked by both progress and setbacks, and finally, its eventual evolution into the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) under the Bangsamoro Organic Law. Understanding the ARMM is crucial for grasping the broader narrative of the Mindanao peace process and the persistent pursuit of lasting peace in the region. It represents a significant, albeit imperfect, chapter in the Philippine government’s attempts to address the aspirations of the Moro people and build a more inclusive nation.

The Deep Roots of Conflict: Setting the Stage for Autonomy

The origins of the conflict in Muslim Mindanao are deeply embedded in history. Prior to Spanish colonization, the Sulu Sultanate and the Sultanate of Maguindanao were independent polities with established political systems, economic networks, and distinct Islamic cultures. Spanish attempts to subjugate these sultanates met with fierce resistance, fostering a long tradition of armed struggle against external control.

The arrival of the Americans in the late 19th century brought a different form of integration. While initially employing a policy of attraction, the American colonial government gradually extended its control, incorporating Mindanao into the Philippine state structure. Policies encouraging Christian migration from Luzon and Visayas altered the demographic landscape of Mindanao, leading to land disputes and marginalization of the Moro population in many areas. This period sowed seeds of resentment and a feeling of being dispossessed in their own ancestral lands.

Post-independence Philippines saw the continuation of policies that, intentionally or not, deepened the divide. Economic underdevelopment in Muslim Mindanao, perceived political marginalization, and incidents like the Jabidah Massacre in 1968 ignited widespread discontent and gave rise to organized resistance movements.

Rise of the Moro Liberation Fronts

The late 1960s and early 1970s saw the emergence of powerful Moro liberation fronts demanding self-determination, initially through secession. The most prominent among these was the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), led by Nur Misuari. The MNLF launched an armed struggle against the Philippine government, marking the intensification of the modern Moro conflict. The government’s response often involved military action, leading to a cycle of violence and displacement.

The calls for independence, however, eventually evolved into demands for genuine autonomy within the Philippine republic, influenced by international mediation and the changing political landscape.

The Path to ARMM: Peace Talks and Agreements

The Philippine government, under various administrations, engaged in sporadic peace talks with the MNLF to find a political solution to the conflict. These negotiations, often facilitated by international bodies like the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), led to crucial agreements that laid the groundwork, at least conceptually, for regional autonomy.

The Tripoli Agreement (1976)

Signed in Tripoli, Libya, under the auspices of the OIC and Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, the Tripoli Agreement of 1976 was a landmark accord between the Philippine government under President Ferdinand Marcos and the MNLF. This agreement envisioned the grant of autonomy to thirteen provinces and all cities within those provinces in Southern Philippines where Muslims were the majority or substantial minority.

Key provisions of the Tripoli Agreement included:

Recognition of autonomy for the Bangsamoro people.
Establishment of an autonomous region encompassing thirteen specific provinces.
Provisions for integrated security forces, an autonomous economy, and Sharia courts.

However, the implementation of the Tripoli Agreement proved contentious. Disputes arose over the interpretation of the extent of autonomy and the process for identifying the areas to be included in the autonomous region. The Marcos government proposed a plebiscite conducted on a province-by-province basis, which the MNLF viewed as a deviation from the spirit of the agreement, arguing that the thirteen provinces should form a single, contiguous autonomous region. This disagreement led to the collapse of the initial implementation efforts and the resumption of hostilities. The failure to fully implement the Tripoli Agreement highlighted the significant challenges in translating peace accords into tangible realities on the ground.

The Jeddah Accord (1987)

Following the EDSA People Power Revolution in 1986 and the installation of President Corazon Aquino, a renewed push for peace began. Negotiations with the MNLF resumed, leading to the signing of the Jeddah Accord in January 1987 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

The Jeddah Accord reaffirmed the commitment of both parties to the Tripoli Agreement as the basis for discussions on the grant of autonomy in Mindanao. It also provided a framework for further negotiations, emphasizing the need to find a political solution to the conflict. While not a final peace agreement itself, the Jeddah Accord signaled a willingness on both sides to return to the negotiating table and explore avenues for peace under the new democratic government.

Establishing the ARMM: Republic Act No. 6734

The 1987 Philippine Constitution, framed during the term of President Corazon Aquino, included provisions for the establishment of autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao and the Cordilleras, recognizing the unique historical and cultural heritage of these areas and the need for self-governance. This constitutional mandate provided the legal basis for the creation of the ARMM.

In 1989, the Philippine Congress passed Republic Act No. 6734, also known as the Organic Act for the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. This law officially created the ARMM.

The 1989 Plebiscite

Crucially, RA 6734 stipulated that the inclusion of provinces and cities in the ARMM would be determined by a plebiscite. Only those provinces and cities where a majority of voters chose to be part of the autonomous region would be included.

The plebiscite was held in November 1989 across the thirteen provinces identified in the original Tripoli Agreement, plus other areas in Mindanao. The results were less extensive than the initial vision. Only four provinces voted to join the ARMM:

Lanao del Sur
Maguindanao
Sulu
Tawi-Tawi

Two cities, Marawi City in Lanao del Sur and Cotabato City in Maguindanao, were supposed to be included based on the province-wide vote, but their residents voted against inclusion in separate city plebiscites (Cotabato City would later join BARMM, but remained outside ARMM for most of its existence). This outcome was a significant departure from the original thirteen provinces envisioned in the Tripoli Agreement and the Jeddah Accord, and it immediately presented challenges to the notion of the ARMM as a comprehensive autonomous region for the Moro people across their historical domains.

Despite the limited scope, the ARMM was formally established, with its regional center initially located in Cotabato City (though the city itself was not part of the region). The first set of regional officials, including the Regional Governor, were elected in 1990.

Challenges and Criticisms of the ARMM

From its inception, the ARMM faced significant challenges that hampered its effectiveness in achieving its goal of establishing a haven for peace and development. These challenges were multifaceted, involving issues of governance, limited resources, and the persistent underlying conflict.

Governance Issues and Political Dynamics

The ARMM structure, while granting a degree of autonomy, was often criticized for being heavily reliant on the central government for funding and policy direction. This limited fiscal autonomy and administrative independence. Furthermore, the regional government often struggled with issues of corruption, patronage politics, and weak institutions. Internal political rivalries and clan-based politics within the region also undermined effective governance and service delivery.

Critics argued that the ARMM became a mechanism for political accommodation rather than genuine empowerment, with regional leadership sometimes perceived as disconnected from the needs and aspirations of the broader population.

Limited Reach and Fragmented Territory

The plebiscite outcome meant the ARMM comprised a non-contiguous territory, excluding several provinces with significant Moro populations that were part of the original Tripoli Agreement framework. This fragmentation limited the ARMM‘s ability to serve as a unifying entity for the Moro people and address the conflict comprehensively across all affected areas. It also meant that significant areas where the MNLF and later the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) had strong support remained outside the autonomous region’s direct jurisdiction.

Persistence of the Conflict

Crucially, the establishment of the ARMM did not immediately lead to the cessation of hostilities. While the MNLF eventually signed a Final Peace Agreement with the Philippine government in 1996 during the term of President Fidel V. Ramos, leading to the integration of some MNLF fighters into the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the police, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), a splinter group of the MNLF, continued its armed struggle, demanding a more substantial form of autonomy or even independence.

The ongoing conflict between the government forces and the MILF, along with other smaller armed groups, continued to destabilize the region, displace communities, and hinder development within the ARMM area and surrounding provinces. The dream of a secure “haven for peace” remained elusive amidst sporadic but often intense fighting.

Economic Development Challenges

Despite the goal of promoting development through autonomy, the ARMM consistently ranked among the poorest regions in the Philippines. Decades of conflict, poor infrastructure, limited access to education and healthcare, and governance issues contributed to this underdevelopment. While the regional government had its own budget, the magnitude of the development challenges often outstripped the available resources. Attracting investment and stimulating economic growth proved difficult in an environment marked by instability.

Key Figures and Administrations During the ARMM Era

Several individuals played significant roles in the administration and political life of the ARMM. Understanding these figures provides insight into the internal dynamics and challenges of the autonomous region.

Zacaria Candao: The first elected Regional Governor of the ARMM, serving from 1990 to 1993 and again from 1996 to 2001. His terms saw the initial setup of the regional government.
Nur Misuari: As Chairman of the MNLF, Nur Misuari was a central figure in the Mindanao peace process. Following the 1996 Final Peace Agreement, he served as the Regional Governor of the ARMM from 1996 to 2001. His term was marked by controversy and eventually ended amidst renewed conflict when he launched an uprising in protest of delays in the implementation of the peace agreement.
Parouk Hussin: Served as Regional Governor from 2001 to 2005, stepping in after Nur Misuari.
Zaldy Ampatuan: Served as Regional Governor from 2005 until his arrest in 2009 in connection with the Maguindanao Massacre. His tenure highlighted the deep-seated issues of political violence and impunity that plagued parts of the region.
Ansaruddin Alonto Adiong: Appointed OIC Regional Governor after Zaldy Ampatuan’s arrest, serving until the 2013 elections.
Mujiv Hataman: Served as Regional Governor from 2013 until the ARMM was officially replaced by the BARMM in 2019. His administration was widely seen as attempting to implement reforms and improve governance within the region.

The performance of the ARMM administration varied across these terms, influenced by the prevailing political climate, relationship with the central government, and the state of the peace talks with the MILF.

Major Peace Initiatives During the ARMM Era

Even as the ARMM operated, the Philippine government continued to pursue a peace agreement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). These peace talks ran concurrently with the existence of the ARMM and eventually led to a new framework for autonomy that would replace the existing autonomous region.

Key milestones in the peace talks with the MILF during the ARMM era include:

Exploratory Talks (late 1990s onwards): Initial discussions to explore the possibility of a negotiated settlement.
Tripoli Agreement of Peace (2001): Signed during the term of President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, this agreement outlined areas of cooperation, including humanitarian, rehabilitation, and development efforts, while negotiations for a political settlement continued.
Agreement on Peace (2012): Signed under President Benigno S. Aquino III’s administration, this framework agreement laid the groundwork for the creation of a new autonomous political entity, the Bangsamoro, which would replace the ARMM.
Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro (CAB) (2014): This landmark agreement between the Philippine government and the MILF consolidated previous agreements and detailed the structure and powers of the proposed Bangsamoro autonomous entity. The CAB envisioned a more powerful and inclusive autonomous government with greater fiscal autonomy and jurisdiction over resources.

These peace talks with the MILF significantly influenced the later trajectory of Muslim Mindanao, ultimately leading to the decision to transition from the ARMM to a new autonomous structure. The ARMM, in a sense, became a placeholder while a more comprehensive and widely accepted framework for autonomy was being negotiated with the dominant non-state actor in the region.

From ARMM to BARMM: Transitioning Towards Deeper Autonomy

The limitations and criticisms surrounding the ARMM, coupled with the progress made in the peace talks with the MILF, led to a consensus that a new framework was needed to achieve lasting peace and genuine autonomy in Muslim Mindanao. This culminated in the passage of the Bangsamoro Organic Law (BOL), officially Republic Act No. 11054, in 2018, signed into law by President Rodrigo Duterte.

The Bangsamoro Organic Law is the legal basis for the creation of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM), which would supersede the ARMM. The BOL aimed to rectify the shortcomings of the ARMM by providing for a more robust autonomous government with expanded powers, particularly in areas of fiscal autonomy, justice system based on Sharia (for Muslims), and natural resources.

A plebiscite for the ratification of the Bangsamoro Organic Law was held in January and February 2019 in the ARMM provinces, Isabela City, Cotabato City, and contiguous areas. The results showed strong support for the BOL in most of the ARMM provinces (Maguindanao, Lanao del Sur, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi) and notably, in Cotabato City and 63 barangays in North Cotabato that opted to join the new autonomous region. Basilan province (excluding Isabela City) also voted for inclusion.

Key Differences Between ARMM and BARMM

The transition from ARMM to BARMM represents a significant shift towards a more substantial form of autonomy. Here’s a simplified comparison:

Feature	ARMM (Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao)	BARMM (Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao)
Basis	Republic Act 6734 (Organic Act) based on the 1987 Constitution provisions.	Republic Act 11054 (Bangsamoro Organic Law) based on the CAB and 1987 Constitution.
Territory	Four provinces (Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi) initially, non-contiguous.	Five provinces (Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao del Norte, Maguindanao del Sur, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, Basilan except Isabela City), Cotabato City, 63 barangays in North Cotabato. More contiguous.
Fiscal Autonomy	Limited, heavily reliant on central government appropriations.	Greater fiscal autonomy, with a share of national taxes and revenues from natural resources.
Governance	Regional Governor and Regional Assembly.	Parliamentary form with a Chief Minister and Bangsamoro Parliament.
Justice System	Limited application of Sharia courts for personal status laws for Muslims.	Expanded powers for Sharia courts, recognition of traditional justice systems.
Security	Coordination with national security forces.	Phased decommissioning of MILF forces, creation of a Bangsamoro police force.
Peace Agreement	Primarily linked to the 1996 MNLF Peace Agreement.	Primarily linked to the 2014 Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro (CAB) with the MILF.

Export to Sheets

The establishment of the BARMM marked the formal dissolution of the ARMM in 2019. The Bangsamoro Transition Authority (BTA), composed of nominees from the government and the MILF, was appointed to govern the region during the transition period leading up to the first regular parliamentary elections.

The Legacy and Lessons Learned from the ARMM Experience

The ARMM‘s nearly 30-year existence offers valuable lessons for the pursuit of peace and autonomy in the Philippines and globally. While it may not have fully realized its potential as a complete haven for peace, it served as a crucial transitional phase in the long and arduous Mindanao peace process.

Its legacy is complex:

Pioneering Autonomy: The ARMM was the first attempt at creating a constitutionally mandated autonomous region for the Moro people. It demonstrated the government’s commitment, at least in principle, to addressing the demand for self-governance.
Highlighting Challenges: The ARMM‘s struggles with governance, limited resources, and the persistence of conflict exposed the complexities of implementing autonomy in a post-conflict setting. It showed that simply creating an administrative structure is not enough; genuine autonomy requires substantial political will, sufficient resources, and the support of the populace.
Building Blocks for BARMM: The experiences, both positive and negative, from the ARMM provided valuable insights that informed the crafting of the Bangsamoro Organic Law and the structure of the BARMM. Lessons learned regarding fiscal autonomy, governance mechanisms, and territory were incorporated into the new framework.
A Venue for Engagement: Despite its flaws, the ARMM served as a venue for engagement between the national government and regional leaders. It provided a political space, albeit constrained, for addressing local issues and delivering some basic services.

The ARMM‘s journey underscores that establishing a “haven for peace” is not a simple or linear process. It requires sustained effort, adaptability, addressing root causes of conflict, and building trust among all stakeholders. While the ARMM itself is now history, its story is integral to understanding the ongoing quest for lasting peace and genuine autonomy in Muslim Mindanao. The BARMM now carries the hopes and expectations for a more successful and inclusive future for the Bangsamoro people, built upon the foundations laid, and the lessons learned, during the era of the ARMM.

Conclusion

The Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) represented a significant historical attempt by the Philippine government to address the long-standing Moro conflict and establish a framework for autonomy and peace in the Southern Philippines. Born out of peace talks and agreements like the Tripoli Agreement and the Jeddah Accord, and legally constituted by Republic Act 6734 based on the 1987 Constitution under President Corazon Aquino, the ARMM was envisioned as a haven for the Moro people seeking self-determination.

However, the ARMM‘s path was fraught with challenges. Its limited territorial reach due to the plebiscite results, issues of governance and fiscal dependency, and the continued armed struggle, particularly by the MILF, prevented it from fully achieving its potential. Key figures like Nur Misuari and various regional governors navigated these complex dynamics.

Despite its shortcomings, the ARMM played a critical role as a transitional entity. Its existence coincided with crucial peace talks with the MILF, leading to agreements like the Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro. The experiences and lessons from the ARMM era, under presidents like Fidel V. Ramos, Joseph Estrada, and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (who also dealt with conflict and peace initiatives in Mindanao), informed the development of a new, more comprehensive framework for autonomy.

This evolution culminated in the passage of the Bangsamoro Organic Law and the establishment of the BARMM, which officially replaced the ARMM in 2019. The transition signifies a renewed hope for achieving a more sustainable and inclusive peace in Muslim Mindanao by providing a stronger foundation for genuine autonomy. The story of the ARMM is therefore not just one of an administrative region, but a vital chapter in the ongoing Mindanao peace process, illustrating the complex and enduring pursuit of a true “haven for peace” in the Southern Philippines.

Key Takeaways:

The ARMM was established in 1990 as the first constitutionally mandated autonomous region in Muslim Mindanao following decades of Moro conflict.
Its creation was influenced by earlier peace talks and agreements, notably the Tripoli Agreement (1976) and the Jeddah Accord (1987), which aimed for autonomy.
The ARMM‘s territory was determined by a plebiscite, resulting in a smaller and non-contiguous area than initially envisioned in earlier agreements.
The region faced significant challenges, including governance issues, limited fiscal autonomy, economic underdevelopment, and the persistence of the Moro conflict.
Key figures like Nur Misuari served as regional governors, highlighting the intersection of political and revolutionary leadership.
The ARMM era overlapped with ongoing peace talks with the MILF, which ultimately led to the Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro (CAB).
Lessons learned from the ARMM informed the crafting of the Bangsamoro Organic Law, which created the BARMM to replace the ARMM in 2019, aiming for deeper autonomy and lasting peace.
The ARMM‘s legacy is that of a pioneering, albeit imperfect, step in the long and complex Mindanao peace process, paving the way for the current BARMM.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):

What was the primary goal behind the establishment of the ARMM? The primary goal was to address the grievances of the Moro people and the long-standing Moro conflict by granting regional autonomy, thereby creating a potential “haven for peace” and self-governance in Muslim Mindanao.
Which peace agreements were significant precursors to the ARMM? The Tripoli Agreement (1976) and the Jeddah Accord (1987) were crucial earlier agreements that envisioned autonomy for Southern Philippines and laid the conceptual groundwork for the creation of an autonomous region.
Why was the ARMM’s territory smaller than initially planned? The territory of the ARMM was determined by a plebiscite mandated by Republic Act 6734. Only provinces and cities where the majority voted for inclusion became part of the region, resulting in a smaller area compared to the thirteen provinces mentioned in the Tripoli Agreement.
What were some of the major challenges faced by the ARMM? Major challenges included limited fiscal autonomy, governance issues (like corruption and political rivalries), the non-contiguous nature of its territory, economic underdevelopment, and the persistence of armed conflict, particularly with the MILF.
How did the MILF conflict relate to the ARMM? The MILF continued its armed struggle for a more significant form of autonomy or independence even after the ARMM was established. Peace talks between the government and the MILF ran parallel to the ARMM‘s existence and ultimately led to the agreement that would replace the ARMM with the BARMM.
Who were some notable figures associated with the ARMM? Key figures include Nur Misuari, who served as Regional Governor after the 1996 peace deal with the MNLF, and various other Regional Governors such as Zacaria Candao, Parouk Hussin, Zaldy Ampatuan, Ansaruddin Alonto Adiong, and Mujiv Hataman.
Why was the ARMM replaced by the BARMM? The ARMM was replaced by the BARMM because the Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro (CAB) between the government and the MILF envisioned a new, more powerful, and inclusive autonomous entity. The Bangsamoro Organic Law provided the legal framework for this transition, aiming to address the perceived limitations of the ARMM and establish a more effective system for peace and governance.
What is the Bangsamoro Organic Law? The Bangsamoro Organic Law (RA 11054) is the Philippine law that created the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM), replacing the ARMM. It provides the legal basis for the BARMM‘s structure, powers, and relationship with the central government, aiming for deeper autonomy based on the peace agreement with the MILF.
Is the Mindanao peace process complete with the establishment of BARMM? The establishment of BARMM is a significant milestone in the Mindanao peace process, representing the implementation of the peace agreement with the MILF. However, the process involves complex challenges like transitional justice, normalization (including decommissioning of forces), and sustained development, meaning the work towards lasting peace is ongoing.

Sources:

Republic Act No. 6734 (The Organic Act for the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao). Available from official Philippine government sources like the Official Gazette.
Republic Act No. 11054 (Bangsamoro Organic Law). Available from official Philippine government sources like the Official Gazette.
Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro (CAB) (2014). Text available from the Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process (OPAPP) and international mediators’ websites.
The 1976 Tripoli Agreement. Historical documents available from academic sources and peace process archives.
The 1987 Jeddah Accord. Historical documents available from academic sources and peace process archives.
Aranal-Sereno, Maria Lourdes P. (1998). The Chequered Landscape of Autonomy in Southern Philippines: The Case of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. Ateneo Human Rights Center. (Academic analysis of ARMM’s early years).
Banlaoi, Rommel C. (2008). Philippine Terrorism and Security Policy: Explaining the Limbs of the Beast. Rex Bookstore. (Provides context on the security landscape and conflict groups in Mindanao).
Jubilan, Malcolm. (2007). The Moro Conflict: Southern Philippines’ Struggle for Self-Determination. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. (Comprehensive historical background of the conflict).
Rodis, Rodel. (2014). The Bangsamoro Basic Law and the Peace Process in Mindanao. Philippine Daily Inquirer (Opinion piece reflecting public discourse and context around the transition). (Provides a perspective on the shift from ARMM to BARMM).
Official Website of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM). (Provides information on the successor entity and the transition). https://www.google.com/search?q=https://opapp.gov.ph/ (Website of the Office of the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process, contains documents related to peace agreements).
Articles and reports from reputable news organizations and academic journals specializing in Philippine affairs, conflict studies, and Southeast Asian history (e.g., Philippine Institute for Development Studies, universities, international think tanks). (These would provide specific details on governance issues, economic conditions, and peace process developments during the ARMM period).

Category: Contemporary Period (1986-Present)