Andres Bonifacio: Hero of the Philippine Revolution

The story of the Philippine Revolution (1896) is incomplete, indeed unimaginable, without the towering figure of Andres Bonifacio. Often hailed as the “Father of the Philippine Revolution” and the “Great Plebeian,” Bonifacio remains one of the most significant and, at times, controversial figures in the nation’s struggle for Independence. While others wrote novels and sought reforms, Bonifacio, a man forged in the hardships of Tondo, Manila, took the decisive step of organizing a secret society dedicated to overthrowing Spanish Colonial Rule through armed struggle. This article delves into the life, leadership, triumphs, tragedies, and enduring legacy of Andres Bonifacio, exploring why he is rightfully considered a primary Hero of the Philippine Revolution. We will trace his journey from humble beginnings, through the founding and leadership of the Katipunan (KKK), the outbreak of the revolution, the fateful Tejeros Convention, and the historical controversies surrounding his untimely death, ultimately assessing his indelible mark on Filipino identity and the fight for freedom.

The Early Life and Awakening of Andres Bonifacio

Understanding Bonifacio the revolutionary requires understanding the context of his formative years under oppressive Spanish Colonial Rule. His path was markedly different from the privileged, European-educated Ilustrados who initially dominated the Propaganda Movement.

Humble Beginnings in Tondo

Andres Bonifacio y de Castro was born on November 30, 1863, in Tondo, Manila. His parents, Santiago Bonifacio and Catalina de Castro, belonged to the lower-middle class. Santiago was a tailor, a boatman, and later a teniente mayor (chief official) of Tondo, while Catalina worked in a cigarette factory. Andres was the eldest of six children. Tragedy struck early when both parents died of illness (possibly tuberculosis or cholera) when Andres was around 14 years old, forcing him to drop out of Guillermo Osmeña’s private school and take responsibility for his younger siblings.

To support his family, the young Bonifacio engaged in various crafts. He and his siblings made and sold paper fans (abanicos) and wooden canes (bastones). He also worked as a messenger (mandatorio) for the British trading firm Fleming and Company, and later as a storekeeper (bodeguero) for the German firm Fressell and Company. Despite his lack of formal higher education, Bonifacio possessed a sharp intellect and an insatiable thirst for knowledge.

Self-Education and Nationalist Stirrings

Bonifacio was an avid reader. He consumed books voraciously, including works on the French Revolution, biographies of US Presidents (like George Washington), Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables, Eugene Sue’s The Wandering Jew, and, crucially, the novels of Jose Rizal – Noli Me Tángere and El Filibusterismo. These works exposed him to ideas of liberty, equality, revolution, and the injustices suffered by his own people under Spanish rule. Rizal’s novels, in particular, painted a stark picture of colonial oppression and ignited the flames of Nationalism in many Filipinos, including Bonifacio.

Beyond reading, Bonifacio was also involved in the local cultural scene. He was reportedly a part-time actor (moro-moro plays) and organizer of theatrical productions in Tondo. This immersion in local culture likely deepened his connection to his roots and the aspirations of the common Filipino.

His political awakening solidified with his involvement in La Liga Filipina. Founded by Jose Rizal upon his return to the Philippines in 1892, La Liga aimed for national unity, mutual protection, defense against injustice, and the promotion of education, agriculture, and commerce through peaceful reforms. Bonifacio was one of the original members, eagerly embracing Rizal’s vision. However, the Spanish authorities, wary of Rizal’s influence, arrested him just days after La Liga’s formation and exiled him to Dapitan in Mindanao.

Forging the Katipunan (KKK): The Path to Revolution

Rizal’s arrest and the subsequent collapse of La Liga Filipina proved a pivotal moment for Bonifacio. He, along with other disillusioned members like Teodoro Plata, Ladislao Diwa, Valentin Diaz, and Deodato Arellano, concluded that peaceful reform was futile under the intransigent Spanish Colonial Rule. They believed that Independence could only be achieved through armed revolution.

The Dissolution of La Liga Filipina and the Birth of the KKK

On the very night of Rizal’s deportation, July 7, 1892, Bonifacio and his associates allegedly met secretly at a house on Azcarraga Street (now Claro M. Recto Avenue) in Tondo. There, they founded the Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Highest and Most Honorable Society of the Children of the Nation), known simply as the Katipunan or KKK. Unlike La Liga’s reformist goals, the Katipunan had one primary objective: secession from Spain through revolution.

Structure, Symbols, and Ideals of the Katipunan

The Katipunan was organized with Masonic influences, employing secret codes, passwords, and initiation rites involving blood compacts (sandugo) to ensure loyalty and secrecy. It initially used a triangle system for recruitment, where each member would recruit two others, knowing only each other. This was later replaced by a more conventional structure with local councils and a Supreme Council (Kataastaasang Sanggunian).

The society had three main aims:

Political: Separation from Spain and securing Philippine Independence.
Moral: Teaching good manners, hygiene, good morals, and attacking religious fanaticism and obscurantism.
Civic: Mutual assistance and defense of the poor and oppressed.

Emilio Jacinto, often called the “Brains of the Katipunan,” became Bonifacio’s close friend and adviser. Jacinto penned the Kartilya ng Katipunan, the society’s guidebook, which outlined its principles and teachings emphasizing patriotism, equality, honor, and compassion. Bonifacio himself wrote a decalogue, the Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Z. Ll. B. (Duties of the Sons of the People), although he eventually adopted Jacinto’s Kartilya as the official primer. The Katipunan also had a women’s chapter, established in 1893, with Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio’s wife (whom he married in 1893), playing a crucial role as the Lakambini (Muse) and keeper of vital documents. The society developed its own internal structure, laws, and bureaucracy, effectively functioning as a shadow government preparing for the eventual uprising and shaping a nascent Filipino identity centered on shared struggle.

Bonifacio as ‘Supremo’: Leadership and Expansion

While Deodato Arellano was the Katipunan’s first president, Bonifacio was its driving force from the beginning. He eventually became its third president, or Supremo (Supreme Leader), in 1895. Under his charismatic and determined leadership, the Katipunan grew rapidly, expanding from Manila to surrounding provinces like Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija. Bonifacio’s background as a common man resonated with the masses – farmers, laborers, artisans – who felt alienated by the elitism of the earlier reform movement. He traveled extensively, organizing chapters and recruiting members, often under the guise of his work or theater activities. The Katipunan established a publication, Kalayaan (Liberty), with Jacinto as editor, further spreading its revolutionary message, though only one issue was printed before the Spanish discovered the press. By 1896, estimates of its membership ranged from 30,000 to as high as 400,000, although the lower figure is likely more accurate. Bonifacio’s leadership was instrumental in transforming a small secret society into a formidable revolutionary force poised to challenge centuries of Spanish Colonial Rule.

Igniting the Flames: The Philippine Revolution of 1896

By mid-1896, the existence of the Katipunan was becoming increasingly difficult to conceal. The growing number of members and internal disputes made discovery almost inevitable.

The Discovery of the Katipunan and the Cry of Pugad Lawin

In August 1896, Teodoro Patiño, a Katipunero involved in a dispute with another member, Apolonio de la Cruz, revealed the secrets of the society to his sister and subsequently to Father Mariano Gil, an Augustinian parish priest of Tondo. Father Gil alerted the Spanish authorities, leading to raids, arrests, and immediate persecution of suspected members.

Facing imminent danger, Bonifacio summoned Katipunan leaders to a meeting. The exact date and location remain subjects of historical controversies, known collectively as the “Cry of Balintawak” or “Cry of Pugad Lawin” (or even Kangkong). Historical accounts vary, placing the event between August 23 and August 26, 1896, in places like Balintawak, Kangkong, Pugad Lawin, or Bahay Toro, all then part of Caloocan. What is certain is that during this gathering, Bonifacio and hundreds of Katipuneros made the momentous decision to launch the revolution. In a dramatic act of defiance, they tore their cedulas personales (community tax certificates), symbols of their vassalage to Spain, shouting “Mabuhay ang Pilipinas! Mabuhay ang Katipunan!” (Long live the Philippines! Long live the Katipunan!). This event marked the beginning of the open Philippine Revolution (1896).

Early Battles and Bonifacio’s Military Role

Bonifacio immediately took command of the revolutionary forces. On August 29-30, 1896, he led an attack on the Spanish powder magazine and garrison at San Juan del Monte (now Pinaglabanan Shrine). Although the Katipuneros were numerous, they were poorly armed (mostly with bolos, spears, and homemade guns) and lacked military training. They suffered heavy casualties against the well-equipped Spanish soldiers and were forced to retreat. Similar uprisings occurred simultaneously in other towns around Manila.

Governor-General Ramon Blanco declared martial law in eight provinces: Manila, Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija (these would later be represented by the eight rays of the sun in the Philippine flag). Bonifacio continued to lead attacks in Marikina, Montalban, and San Mateo, experiencing both minor victories and significant setbacks. While his courage and determination were undeniable, historical assessments often question Bonifacio’s effectiveness as a military strategist and field commander compared to figures who later emerged, particularly in Cavite. He was primarily an organizer and motivator, the soul of the revolution, rather than a trained general.

The Revolution Spreads: Successes and Challenges

Despite initial setbacks around Manila, the revolution gained significant ground, especially in Cavite. Led by figures like Emilio Aguinaldo (municipal captain of Kawit and leader of the Magdalo faction) and Mariano Alvarez (Bonifacio’s uncle-in-law and leader of the Magdiwang faction), Caviteño revolutionaries achieved notable victories, driving out Spanish forces from most of the province by late 1896. This success, however, sowed the seeds of a debilitating rivalry that would tragically impact Bonifacio’s fate. While Bonifacio, the Supremo, struggled in the field near Manila, Aguinaldo rapidly gained prestige as a successful military leader in Cavite.

The Rise of Factionalism: Magdiwang vs. Magdalo in Cavite

The success of the revolution in Cavite created a complex political landscape. The province was divided between two rival provincial councils of the Katipunan:

The Magdiwang council, based in Noveleta, headed by Mariano Alvarez, remained fiercely loyal to Bonifacio as Supremo.
The Magdalo council, based in Kawit, headed by Baldomero Aguinaldo (Emilio’s cousin), looked to Emilio Aguinaldo for leadership due to his battlefield successes.

Bonifacio Arrives in Cavite: A Shift in Power Dynamics

As the rivalry intensified, threatening the unity of the revolutionary effort, the Magdiwang faction invited Bonifacio to Cavite in late 1896 to mediate between the two groups and consolidate the revolutionary forces. Bonifacio, hoping to assert his authority as Supremo and unify the movement, accepted the invitation.

His arrival, however, did not resolve the conflict; instead, it exacerbated it. Some members of the Magdalo faction, perhaps influenced by regional pride and Aguinaldo’s military prominence, began to question Bonifacio’s leadership. They pointed to his lack of formal education and his recent military defeats near Manila, contrasting them with Aguinaldo’s victories. The tension reflected a deeper divide: Bonifacio represented the central leadership of the Katipunan founded in Manila, while the Caviteño leaders represented localized power centers born from military success.

The Seeds of Discord: Class and Regional Tensions

Underlying the Magdiwang–Magdalo rivalry were elements of class and regionalism. Bonifacio, the man from Tondo, represented the plebeian origins of the Katipunan’s mass base. Aguinaldo and many Magdalo leaders came from the principalia, the local elite of Cavite. While both factions aimed for Independence, differences in background, perspective, and leadership style fueled mistrust and competition. The Magdalo group increasingly favored establishing a formal revolutionary government to replace the Katipunan structure, implicitly challenging Bonifacio’s authority as Supremo.

The Tejeros Convention: A Turning Point and Tragedy

The escalating factionalism and the need for a unified government led to the fateful Tejeros Convention, held on March 22, 1897, at the friar estate house in Tejeros, a barrio of San Francisco de Malabon (now General Trias), Cavite. Intended to unite the revolutionaries and decide on the form of government, it instead became the stage for Bonifacio’s downfall.

The Assembly and its Contentious Election

The convention was attended by members of both the Magdiwang and Magdalo factions. Initially presided over by Jacinto Lumbreras (Magdiwang), the discussion shifted from strategy to establishing a new revolutionary government. Bonifacio, as Supremo, presided over the subsequent election of officers for this new government.

The results were devastating for Bonifacio:

President: Emilio Aguinaldo (who was absent, leading forces in Pasong Santol)
Vice-President: Mariano Trias (Magdiwang, but allied with Aguinaldo)
Captain-General: Artemio Ricarte (Magdiwang)
Director of War: Emiliano Riego de Dios (Magdalo)
Director of the Interior: Andres Bonifacio

The Insult and the Acta de Tejeros

Bonifacio initially accepted the results, despite his demotion from Supremo to a cabinet position. However, when his qualification for Director of the Interior was questioned by Daniel Tirona (Magdalo), who insolently suggested that the position should be held by a lawyer (like Jose del Rosario), Bonifacio felt deeply insulted. Tirona’s remark highlighted the class prejudice Bonifacio faced from some members of the Cavite elite. Enraged, Bonifacio demanded Tirona retract his statement. When Tirona tried to leave, Bonifacio reportedly aimed a pistol at him but was restrained. Feeling his authority and honor utterly disrespected, Bonifacio declared the proceedings null and void, asserting his power as Supremo of the Katipunan. He stormed out of the assembly with his loyal followers.

The next day, Bonifacio and his supporters, including Mariano Alvarez and Artemio Ricarte, drafted the Acta de Tejeros. This document formally rejected the results of the convention, citing irregularities and fraud (alleging pre-filled ballots by the Magdalo faction). They reaffirmed their commitment to the Katipunan and resolved to establish their own separate council and government. Later, at the Naic Assembly, Bonifacio and his officers created the Naic Military Agreement, establishing a rival government and commissioning an army, effectively challenging Aguinaldo’s newly elected government. These actions were viewed by the Aguinaldo camp as treason and sedition. This event remains one of the most significant historical controversies of the revolution.

The Arrest, Trial, and Execution of the Bonifacio Brothers

The events following the Tejeros Convention set Bonifacio on a collision course with Aguinaldo’s government. Aguinaldo, having taken his oath as President in Santa Cruz de Malabon (now Tanza) without Bonifacio, moved to consolidate his power and deal with the perceived threat posed by the Supremo.

Capture in Limbon

Aguinaldo ordered the arrest of Bonifacio. In late April 1897, Aguinaldo sent Col. Agapito Bonzon and Jose Ignacio Paua to apprehend him. They found Bonifacio and his remaining followers, including his brothers Ciriaco and Procopio, and his wife Gregoria de Jesus, in the barrio of Limbon, Indang, Cavite. A skirmish ensued on April 25, 1897. Ciriaco Bonifacio was killed, Andres was wounded (shot in the arm and stabbed in the neck), and Procopio was beaten. Andres and Procopio were captured and taken to Naic, the headquarters of Aguinaldo’s government. Gregoria de Jesus later alleged she was assaulted during the arrest.

The Council of War and Questionable Verdict

A Council of War was quickly convened in Maragondon, Cavite, from April 29 to May 4, 1897, to try Andres and Procopio Bonifacio for sedition and treason against the established revolutionary government. The council was composed mainly of Aguinaldo’s men, presided over by Mariano Noriel. Bonifacio’s appointed defense lawyer, Placido Martinez, acted more like a prosecutor, pleading for leniency rather than arguing for acquittal. Witnesses testified against the Bonifacios, some allegedly under duress. Bonifacio himself defended his actions, stating he did not recognize the Tejeros government due to the irregularities.

Despite the questionable nature of the proceedings, the Council of War found both brothers guilty on May 8, 1897, and recommended the death penalty. Emilio Aguinaldo initially commuted the sentence to indefinite exile on May 8th, but he was persuaded by Generals Mariano Noriel and Pio del Pilar (among others) to withdraw the commutation order. They argued that Bonifacio’s continued existence would threaten the unity and stability of the revolution. Aguinaldo reinstated the death sentence. The handling of the trial and the pressure on Aguinaldo to execute Bonifacio are major points of historical controversies.

Death in Maragondon: An Unanswered Question?

On May 10, 1897, Major Lazaro Makapagal received sealed orders from General Noriel to take Andres and Procopio Bonifacio to Mount Tala near Maragondon, Cavite, and execute them. Makapagal carried out the order. According to his own account years later, Procopio was shot first. When Andres pleaded for his life or attempted to escape (accounts differ), Makapagal and his men executed him as well. The exact location of their burial remains unknown, though markers exist in the area. Andres Bonifacio, the founder of the Katipunan and initiator of the Philippine Revolution (1896), was executed by fellow revolutionaries at the age of 33. His death marked a tragic end to a pivotal figure and solidified Aguinaldo’s leadership, though it cast a long shadow over the revolutionary cause.

Bonifacio’s Legacy: The Great Plebeian and Father of the Revolution

Despite his tragic end and the controversies surrounding his leadership and death, Andres Bonifacio‘s place as a paramount Hero of the Philippine Revolution is undeniable. His legacy is complex but profoundly significant.

Enduring Symbol of Resistance and Filipino Identity

Bonifacio remains a powerful symbol of Filipino courage, patriotism, and the common man’s role in shaping national destiny.

Founder of the Katipunan: He established the organization that directly sought and initiated the armed struggle for Independence.
Initiator of the Revolution: The Cry of Pugad Lawin, under his leadership, marked the definitive start of the war against Spanish Colonial Rule.
The Great Plebeian: His humble origins and connection to the masses made him an icon for ordinary Filipinos, demonstrating that heroism and leadership could emerge from any social class. He embodied the aspirations of the Anak ng Bayan (Children of the Nation).
Voice of Radical Nationalism: Unlike the reformists, Bonifacio represented the uncompromising demand for complete separation from Spain, shaping a more radical and immediate vision of Filipino identity and sovereignty.

Historical Debates: Hero vs. Flawed Leader?

Bonifacio is not without his critics, and historical controversies continue:

Military Leadership: Historians debate his effectiveness as a military commander compared to Aguinaldo.
Tejeros Actions: His declaration nullifying the Tejeros Convention and subsequent actions (Acta de Tejeros, Naic Military Agreement) are viewed by some as understandable reactions to insult and perceived fraud, and by others as divisive acts detrimental to revolutionary unity.
First President Question: There’s an ongoing debate about whether Bonifacio should be recognized as the first President of the Philippines, based on his position as Supremo of the Katipunan, which functioned as a de facto revolutionary government (Haring Bayang Katagalugan) before Tejeros. While not formally elected in the manner Aguinaldo was at Tejeros, his role was foundational.

These debates do not diminish his heroism but add layers to understanding the complexities of the revolution and its leadership struggles. He was a product of his time, a revolutionary leader facing immense challenges, internal rivalries, and ultimately, betrayal.

Bonifacio in National Memory and Commemoration

Today, Andres Bonifacio is officially recognized as a national hero of the Philippines.

Bonifacio Day: November 30, his birthday, is a national holiday.
Monuments: Numerous monuments, most famously the Bonifacio Monument in Caloocan City designed by Guillermo Tolentino, honor his memory across the country. Streets, schools, and municipalities bear his name.
Cultural Depictions: His life continues to be explored in books, films, and plays, reflecting his enduring hold on the national imagination.

He represents the revolutionary spirit, the courage to fight against overwhelming odds, and the fundamental desire for freedom that defines the Filipino nation. His story is a crucial part of the narrative of Nationalism and the birth of the Philippines.

Key Takeaways:

Andres Bonifacio, born in Tondo, rose from humble beginnings to become the Supremo of the Katipunan (KKK).
He was a key organizer and the driving force behind the Philippine Revolution (1896), initiating the armed struggle against Spanish Colonial Rule with the Cry of Pugad Lawin.
Bonifacio represented the plebeian element of the revolution and advocated for immediate Independence.
Factionalism, particularly the rivalry between the Magdiwang and Magdalo groups in Cavite, led to the contentious Tejeros Convention.
Following Tejeros, Bonifacio was arrested, tried by a Council of War under Emilio Aguinaldo‘s government, and executed in Maragondon in May 1897.
Despite historical controversies, Bonifacio is revered as a primary Hero of the Philippine Revolution and a symbol of Filipino Nationalism and Filipino identity.

Conclusion

Andres Bonifacio‘s life was a testament to the power of conviction and the courage to challenge oppression. As the founder and Supremo of the Katipunan, he translated the simmering discontent under Spanish Colonial Rule into organized, armed resistance, fundamentally altering the course of Philippine history. While his military campaigns faced challenges and his leadership was ultimately contested, leading to his tragic demise at the Tejeros Convention and subsequent execution in Maragondon, his role as the initiator of the Philippine Revolution (1896) remains undisputed.

He embodied the aspirations of the common Filipino, proving that the fight for Independence belonged to all, not just the elite. The historical controversies surrounding his rivalry with Emilio Aguinaldo and the circumstances of his death continue to be debated, highlighting the complex and often painful internal dynamics of the revolution. Nevertheless, Bonifacio’s legacy endures. He is remembered not just as a fiery revolutionary but as a foundational figure in the forging of Filipino identity and the relentless pursuit of Nationalism and freedom. Andres Bonifacio truly stands as a central Hero of the Philippine Revolution, whose contributions and sacrifice paved the way for the eventual, though hard-won, independence of the Philippines. His story serves as a perpetual reminder of the cost of freedom and the enduring spirit of resistance.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):

Why is Andres Bonifacio called the ‘Supremo’?
- Bonifacio held the highest position in the Katipunan (KKK), serving as its third President or Supreme Leader (Supremo). This title reflected his ultimate authority within the revolutionary organization before the Tejeros Convention.
Is Andres Bonifacio considered the first President of the Philippines?
- This is a subject of ongoing debate (historical controversies). Proponents argue that the Katipunan under Bonifacio functioned as a de facto national government (Haring Bayang Katagalugan) before the Tejeros election, making him the head of state. Officially, Emilio Aguinaldo, elected at Tejeros and leader of the First Philippine Republic, is recognized as the first president. However, Bonifacio’s role as the leader who initiated the nationwide revolution gives weight to the argument for his recognition.
What was the main conflict between Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Aguinaldo?
- The conflict stemmed primarily from leadership rivalry and factionalism within the revolution, particularly between the Magdiwang (loyal to Bonifacio) and Magdalo (loyal to Aguinaldo) groups in Cavite. Differences in background (Bonifacio the plebeian from Manila, Aguinaldo the principalia from Cavite), military success (Aguinaldo’s victories vs. Bonifacio’s setbacks), and differing views on revolutionary governance culminated in the Tejeros Convention, where Aguinaldo was elected President over Bonifacio, leading to Bonifacio’s rejection of the results and eventual execution ordered by Aguinaldo’s government.
What is the significance of the Cry of Pugad Lawin (or Balintawak)?
- The Cry of Pugad Lawin (or Balintawak/Kangkong – the exact location is debated) in August 1896 marks the decisive start of the Philippine Revolution (1896) against Spanish Colonial Rule. Led by Andres Bonifacio, Katipuneros tore their cedulas (tax certificates) as a symbol of defiance, signifying their commitment to armed struggle for Independence.
Why was Andres Bonifacio executed?
- After rejecting the results of the Tejeros Convention and attempting to establish a separate council/government, Bonifacio was accused of treason and sedition by Emilio Aguinaldo‘s newly formed revolutionary government. He and his brother Procopio were arrested, tried by a Council of War dominated by Aguinaldo’s allies in Maragondon, found guilty, and executed on May 10, 1897, ostensibly to preserve the unity of the revolution under Aguinaldo’s leadership. The fairness of the trial remains a major point of historical controversies.
Who was Gregoria de Jesus?
- Gregoria de Jesus, nicknamed Oriang, was the wife of Andres Bonifacio and a key figure in the Katipunan. She served as the Lakambini (Muse) of the society, custodian of its secret documents, and actively participated in the revolutionary cause. She endured hardship alongside Bonifacio, including the traumatic events surrounding his arrest.
What was the role of Jose Rizal and La Liga Filipina in relation to Bonifacio?
- Jose Rizal‘s writings profoundly influenced Bonifacio’s Nationalism. Bonifacio was an early member of La Liga Filipina, Rizal’s reformist organization. However, Rizal’s swift exile and the Liga’s collapse convinced Bonifacio that peaceful reform was impossible, leading him to establish the revolutionary Katipunan (KKK). While Rizal inspired the desire for change, Bonifacio took the path of armed revolt.

Sources:

Agoncillo, Teodoro A. Revolt of the Masses: The Story of Bonifacio and the Katipunan. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1956.
Agoncillo, Teodoro A. History of the Filipino People. 8th ed. Quezon City: Garotech Publishing, 1990.
Constantino, Renato. The Philippines: A Past Revisited. Quezon City: Tala Publishing Services, 1975.
Guerrero, Milagros C., Emmanuel N. Encarnacion, and Ramon N. Villegas. “Andres Bonifacio and the 1896 Revolution.” Sulyap Kultura 1, no. 2 (1996): 3–12. [Often cited in discussions, though direct online link might vary].
Ileto, Reynaldo C. Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840–1910. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979.
Joaquin, Nick. A Question of Heroes. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, 2005. (Includes essays on both Bonifacio and Aguinaldo).
National Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP). Various articles and resources on Bonifacio, the Katipunan, and the Philippine Revolution. https://nhcp.gov.ph/ (Specific articles should be searched on the site).
Ocampo, Ambeth R. Bones of Contention: The Bonifacio Lectures. Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, 2001.
Richardson, Jim. The Light of Liberty: Documents and Studies on the Katipunan, 1892-1897. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2013. (Provides translations of key Katipunan documents).
Zaide, Gregorio F., and Sonia M. Zaide. Philippine History and Government. 6th ed. Manila: All-Nations Publishing Co., 2004.

Category: Spanish Colonial Period (1521-1898)