Exploring the American Period in the Philippines: A Historical Overview

The close of the 19th century marked a dramatic turning point in Philippine history. Three centuries of Spanish colonial rule were drawing to a violent end, only to be immediately followed by the arrival of a new colonial power: the United States of America. The American Period in the Philippines, spanning from 1898 to 1946, was a complex era of conflict, transformation, and evolving Filipino identity. This period witnessed the bloody Philippine-American War, the implementation of American policies aimed at governance and “modernization,” significant changes in political, social, and economic structures, the rise of influential Filipino leaders, the interruption of World War II in the Philippines and the brutal Japanese Occupation, and ultimately, the formal granting of Independence Day Philippines. Understanding this era is crucial to comprehending the trajectory of the Filipino nation.

This article will delve into the key events, policies, figures, and impacts of the American Period in the Philippines, moving chronologically from the initial conflict to the eventual attainment of sovereignty. We will explore the different facets of American rule, the multifaceted responses of the Filipino people, and the enduring legacies that continue to shape the archipelago today.

The Dawn of American Rule: From Conflict to Control

The arrival of the Americans in the Philippines was a direct consequence of the Spanish-American War, a conflict primarily driven by Cuban independence but quickly expanding to Spain’s other colonies. Commodore George Dewey’s victory over the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, effectively ended Spanish naval power in the Pacific. Filipino revolutionaries, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, had also intensified their fight against Spain, culminating in the declaration of Philippine independence on June 12, 1898. However, this nascent independence was short-lived and unrecognized by the arriving American forces.

The Spanish-American War and the Treaty of Paris

While Filipinos were celebrating their hard-won freedom from Spain, representatives from Spain and the United States were negotiating the fate of Spanish colonies in Paris. The resulting Treaty of Paris 1898, signed on December 10, 1898, formally ended the Spanish-American War. In a move that profoundly shocked and angered Filipino leaders, Spain ceded Cuba and sold Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States. Crucially, Spain also sold the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. The US government justified this acquisition through various means, including the idea of “manifest destiny” and the perceived need to civilize and Christianize the Filipinos (despite the Philippines already being predominantly Catholic).

The transfer of sovereignty from Spain to the US without Filipino consent laid the groundwork for the subsequent conflict. Filipino leaders, who had collaborated with the Americans against the Spanish under the assumption that their independence would be recognized, felt betrayed.

The Outbreak of the Philippine-American War

Tensions between Filipino and American forces, who were both occupying areas around Manila, escalated quickly after the Treaty of Paris 1898. The formal outbreak of the Philippine-American War occurred on the night of February 4, 1899. An American sentry fired upon Filipino soldiers near the San Juan del Monte bridge, igniting a conflict that would last for years and claim hundreds of thousands of lives, mostly Filipino civilians.

The war was brutal and characterized by conventional battles in its early stages, followed by a protracted guerrilla phase. The American military, under commanders like General Elwell Otis and later General Arthur MacArthur Jr (father of Douglas MacArthur, known as MacArthur SR governor general due to his later role and fame, though Arthur was the governor-general during the war), initially underestimated the resolve of the Filipino forces. President William McKinley famously articulated the policy of “Benevolent Assimilation” in December 1898, a statement that aimed to frame the American presence not as an occupation but as a mission to uplift and prepare the Filipinos for self-governance. However, the reality of the war, with its massacres, concentration camps, and widespread destruction, sharply contrasted with this stated intent.

Key Figures and Early Resistance

The Philippine-American War saw numerous Filipino leaders and individuals rise to prominence in their fight against the new colonial power.

Emilio Aguinaldo: The leader of the Philippine Revolution against Spain and the President of the First Philippine Republic. He led the initial phase of the Philippine-American War until his capture in 1901.
Miguel Malvar: Took over the leadership of the Filipino forces in Batangas after Aguinaldo’s capture and continued the resistance until his surrender in 1902, marking the official end of the conventional phase of the war.
Baldomero Aguinaldo: First cousin of Emilio Aguinaldo, a key figure in the Katipunan and later in the revolutionary government. He served as Secretary of War and Public Works.
Tomas Mascardo: A general in the Philippine-American War who operated in Pampanga, Bataan, and Zambales. He refused to surrender immediately after Aguinaldo’s capture.
Jose Alejandrino: A military engineer and general who played a crucial role in the revolutionary army, overseeing fortifications and armament. He also served as a diplomat.
Paciano Rizal: Older brother of national hero Jose Rizal, he was a general in the revolutionary army and a trusted advisor to Emilio Aguinaldo. He continued to support the resistance movement even after his brother’s execution.
Teresa Magbanua: Known as the “Visayan Joan of Arc,” she was a Filipino schoolteacher and military leader who fought against both Spanish and American forces in Iloilo, Panay. Her bravery in battle earned her widespread respect.
Nicolas Capistrano: Led Filipino forces in Northern Mindanao, notably in the Battle of Cagayan de Misamis in 1900.
Daniel Tirona: A controversial figure known for his challenge to Andres Bonifacio’s qualification during the Tejeros Convention in 1897, leading to a rift within the revolutionary leadership. His actions had long-term implications for the Philippine Revolution.
Emiliano Riego de Dios: A general and official in the revolutionary government, he was a key figure in Cavite politics and military campaigns during the war.
General Luciano San Miguel: Commanded Filipino forces in Zambales and Pangasinan after the capture of Aguinaldo, continuing the guerrilla resistance in Central Luzon.

The Resistance Movement against American rule took various forms, from organized military campaigns led by figures like Malvar to localized guerrilla warfare, banditry, and even passive resistance and political agitation. The war was devastating, leading to massive casualties and the destruction of infrastructure and livelihoods across the archipelago.

Establishing American Governance: Policies and Promises

Once the main phase of the Philippine-American War ended, the United States began the process of establishing a colonial government and implementing policies designed to integrate the Philippines into the American sphere of influence. This phase was guided by the policy of Benevolent Assimilation.

“Benevolent Assimilation” and Early Administration

President McKinley’s Benevolent Assimilation proclamation outlined the American intention to govern the Philippines not as a conquered territory but with the aim of uplifting and civilizing its people. This policy was a blend of genuine reformist zeal and strategic imperial interest. Key figures in the early American administration included:

William Howard Taft: The first civilian Governor-General of the Philippines (1901-1903) and later the 27th President of the United States. Taft was instrumental in establishing the early colonial government, focusing on infrastructure, education, and public health. The Howard Taft legacy in Philippines is often associated with the establishment of civilian rule and early attempts at infrastructure development.
Arthur MacArthur Jr governor general: Served as Military Governor from 1900 to 1901, overseeing the latter stages of the Philippine-American War. His administration was marked by continued military campaigns and the implementation of harsh measures against resistance.
Francis Burton Harrison: Served as Governor-General from 1913 to 1921. His term is notable for implementing “Filipinization,” a policy that appointed more Filipinos to positions in the colonial bureaucracy. This was seen as a step towards self-governance, though ultimate authority remained with the American Governor-General.
Wesley Merritt: The first Military Governor of the Philippines in 1898, he oversaw the transition from Spanish to American military control in Manila.
Elihu Root: As US Secretary of War under McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, Root played a significant role in shaping American colonial policy and the administration of the Philippines.
Frank R. White: A key figure in the early American education system in the Philippines, he was instrumental in establishing schools and training Filipino teachers. The development of Education in the Philippines under American rule owes much to individuals like White.
Paul V. McNutt: The last American High Commissioner and the first US Ambassador to the Philippines after independence in 1946. The Paul V. McNutt legacy in Philippines is linked to the post-war transition and the establishment of the Republic.

The structure of the colonial government evolved over time. Initially, military rule was necessary due to the ongoing war. This transitioned to a civilian government with the appointment of Taft as Governor-General.

Political Development: From Military Rule to Limited Self-Governance

The path towards Filipino participation in governance was gradual and measured by the Americans.

The Taft Commission (Second Philippine Commission, 1900): Established by President McKinley, this commission was tasked with establishing a civilian government, organizing municipalities and provinces, and laying the groundwork for the legal and educational systems.
The Philippine Bill of 1902: This act formally organized the government and authorized the creation of the Philippine Assembly. It also included a bill of rights for Filipinos and provided for the election of two Filipino Resident Commissioners to the U.S. House of Representatives (who could speak but not vote).
The Philippine Assembly (established 1907): The first popularly elected legislative body in the Philippines. While the upper house, the Philippine Commission, was appointed by the American President, the Assembly provided a platform for Filipino political leaders like Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña to voice their aspirations and gain legislative experience. This marked a significant step towards limited self-governance.

This period saw the rise of Filipino political parties, notably the Nacionalista Party led by Quezon and Osmeña, which advocated for eventual independence.

Sociocultural and Economic Transformations

Beyond political structures, the American Period in the Philippines brought about significant changes in Filipino society and the economy, largely under the banner of Benevolent Assimilation.

Education under American Rule

One of the most significant and widely acknowledged positive legacies of American rule was the establishment of a comprehensive public education system. This effort was spearheaded by individuals like Frank R. White.

Mass Education: The Americans introduced a system of free and compulsory primary education. Schools were established in towns and villages across the archipelago.
English as the Medium of Instruction: English was adopted as the language of instruction, intended to unify the country and provide access to American knowledge and culture. This had a profound and lasting impact on the linguistic landscape of the Philippines.
The Thomasites: In 1901, a group of approximately 500 American teachers arrived aboard the USS Thomas, fanning out across the islands to establish schools and train Filipino teachers.
Higher Education: Institutions like the University of the Philippines (established 1908) were founded, providing opportunities for advanced education and training a new generation of Filipino professionals and leaders.

While the education system aimed to instill American values and civic ideals, it also inadvertently fostered a sense of national identity and provided Filipinos with the tools and knowledge to eventually advocate for independence.

Public Health Initiatives

American administrators prioritized public health to combat prevalent tropical diseases and improve living conditions.

Disease Control: Campaigns were launched against diseases like cholera, smallpox, and tuberculosis. Vaccination programs were implemented.
Sanitation: Efforts were made to improve sanitation systems in urban areas.
Hospitals and Clinics: Hospitals and dispensaries were built, expanding access to medical care.

These initiatives led to a decrease in mortality rates and an improvement in overall public health, though access to these services remained uneven, particularly in rural areas.

Economic Development and Challenges

The American colonial government pursued policies aimed at integrating the Philippine economy with that of the United States.

Free Trade: The Payne–Aldrich Act of 1909 and the Underwood–Simmons Act of 1913 established free trade relations between the US and the Philippines. This led to a significant increase in Philippine exports (primarily agricultural products like sugar, coconut oil, hemp, and tobacco) to the American market.
Infrastructure Development: Investments were made in infrastructure, including roads, bridges, and ports, to facilitate trade and transportation.
Land Ownership Issues: While efforts were made to regulate land ownership, large landholdings (friar lands and haciendas) persisted, leading to agrarian unrest and inequality in later periods.
Dependency: The reliance on the American market created economic dependency, making the Philippines vulnerable to changes in US trade policies.

While Economic Development occurred during this period, it was largely structured to benefit American economic interests, and the benefits were not evenly distributed among the Filipino population.

The Path to Independence: Legislation and Politics

From the early days of American rule, the aspiration for independence remained a powerful force driving Filipino Nationalism. While military resistance eventually waned, political agitation and lobbying for self-governance gained momentum.

The Jones Law (Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916)

A significant legislative milestone on the path to independence was the passage of the Jones Law by the U.S. Congress. This act replaced the Philippine Commission with an elected Senate, creating a fully elected bicameral Philippine Legislature. It also contained a preamble that explicitly stated the intention of the United States to grant independence to the Philippines as soon as a stable government could be established therein.

The Jones Law significantly increased Filipino participation in the legislative process and placed more power in the hands of elected Filipino officials, particularly Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, who dominated the Nacionalista Party and Philippine politics for decades.

The Tydings-McDuffie Act (Philippine Independence Act of 1934)

After years of lobbying by Filipino political missions in Washington D.C., the U.S. Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act. This act provided for the establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth, a transitional government that would prepare the country for full independence after a ten-year period. The Act also outlined the process for drafting and adopting a constitution for the Philippines and established quotas for Philippine exports to the US market and limitations on Filipino immigration to the US.

The Tydings-McDuffie Act represented the culmination of decades of Filipino political struggle for self-determination. It set a definite timeline for independence, although the coming of World War II would significantly impact this schedule.

The Philippine Commonwealth (1935-1946)

Established in 1935 under the terms of the Tydings-McDuffie Act, the Philippine Commonwealth was a significant step towards full sovereignty. It had its own constitution (the 1935 Constitution), an elected President and Vice-President, and a more autonomous government structure, though defense, foreign affairs, and currency remained under American oversight.

Manuel L. Quezon: Was elected as the first President of the Philippine Commonwealth, with Sergio Osmeña as Vice-President. Their leadership during this transitional period was crucial in navigating the challenges of preparing for independence and later, dealing with the Japanese invasion.
Paul V. McNutt: Served as the last American High Commissioner to the Philippines before the formal grant of independence in 1946.

The Commonwealth government focused on nation-building efforts, including social justice programs, economic development, and national defense. However, the looming threat of war in the Pacific cast a long shadow over its existence.

World War II and Japanese Occupation

The trajectory of the American Period in the Philippines was violently interrupted by World War II in the Philippines. Japan, seeking to expand its influence in Southeast Asia, invaded the Philippines shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941.

Impact of the War

The war brought immense suffering and destruction to the Philippines. Key events included:

The Battle of Bataan and Corregidor: Filipino and American forces fought bravely but were eventually overwhelmed by the Japanese.
The Bataan Death March: A brutal forced march of tens of thousands of captured Filipino and American soldiers, resulting in thousands of deaths.
The Battle of Manila (1945): The liberation of Manila was one of the most devastating urban battles of the war, leaving the city in ruins.

Collaboration and Resistance

The Japanese Occupation (1942-1945) presented Filipinos with stark choices. Some collaborated with the Japanese-sponsored Second Philippine Republic, led by Jose P. Laurel, believing it was the pragmatic path to survival or even a means to achieve genuine independence from both Japan and the US. Others joined the underground Resistance Movement, forming guerrilla units that harassed Japanese forces and gathered intelligence for the Allied powers. This period of Collaboration and resistance created deep divisions within Filipino society that would have repercussions after the war.

General Douglas MacArthur, who had famously promised “I shall return” upon leaving the Philippines in 1942, led the Allied forces that liberated the country beginning in late 1944.

Post-War Period and Formal Independence

The end of World War II in the Philippines in 1945 found the country devastated. Cities, infrastructure, and the economy were in ruins. The Philippine Commonwealth government, which had operated in exile, returned to begin the massive task of rehabilitation.

Rehabilitation Efforts

The immediate post-war years were focused on rebuilding the nation. The United States provided significant financial aid for rehabilitation, but this assistance often came with strings attached, such as the Philippine Trade Act of 1946 (also known as the Bell Trade Act), which tied the Philippine economy closely to the US and granted Americans parity rights in the exploitation of Philippine natural resources.

The Granting of Independence (Independence Day Philippines)

Despite the devastation and the challenges of rehabilitation, the timeline set by the Tydings-McDuffie Act was largely adhered to. On July 4, 1946, the United States formally granted independence to the Philippines. This historic event marked the end of the American Period in the Philippines and the birth of the Republic of the Philippines. Sergio Osmeña was the President at the time, having taken over after the death of Manuel L. Quezon.

The choice of July 4th as Independence Day Philippines initially symbolized the close ties between the two nations. However, over time, many Filipinos felt that June 12th, the anniversary of Emilio Aguinaldo’s declaration of independence from Spain in 1898, was a more appropriate date to commemorate their national sovereignty. In 1962, President Diosdado Macapagal officially declared June 12th as the Philippines’ true Independence Day.

Legacies and Lasting Impacts

The American Period in the Philippines left an indelible mark on the archipelago, with both positive and negative legacies that continue to be debated by historians and felt by Filipinos today.

Political Institutions: The framework of the Philippine government, with its democratic institutions, separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial), and a bill of rights, is heavily influenced by the American model. The establishment of the Philippine Assembly and the Philippine Commonwealth laid the groundwork for independent governance.
Education: The public education system, English as a widely used language, and a relatively high literacy rate are direct results of American policies on Education in the Philippines.
Public Health: American initiatives significantly improved Public Health infrastructure and practices, leading to better health outcomes for the population.
Infrastructure: Investments in roads, bridges, and ports contributed to better connectivity and facilitated Economic Development, although unevenly distributed.
Economic Dependency: The trade relationship fostered during the American period created a degree of economic dependency on the United States that persisted for decades after independence.
Cultural Influence: American culture, including language, popular media, and consumerism, has had a profound and lasting impact on Filipino society.
Filipino Nationalism: While American rule initially suppressed Filipino aspirations for independence, the policies implemented (like education and Filipinization) inadvertently strengthened a sense of national identity and capacity for self-governance, fueling further the call for independence. The period also saw the evolution of the Resistance Movement from military to political means.
Historical Interpretations: The American period remains a subject of varied historical interpretations. Some emphasize the positive contributions in education and health (Benevolent Assimilation), while others highlight the violence of the Philippine-American War, the economic exploitation, and the suppression of genuine independence movements.

Different Perspectives and Historical Interpretations

The historiography of the American Period in the Philippines is rich and often contested. Historians offer varying perspectives on the motivations behind American colonization, the nature of American rule, and the impact on the Filipino people.

Some earlier historical accounts, often influenced by American perspectives, tended to emphasize the altruistic aspects of Benevolent Assimilation, focusing on the introduction of democracy, education, and public health as gifts from a benevolent power. This view often downplayed the violence and casualties of the Philippine-American War and the suppression of the First Philippine Republic.

More contemporary Filipino and international historians often take a more critical stance, highlighting:

The inherent contradiction between the stated goal of Benevolent Assimilation and the brutal reality of the Philippine-American War.
The strategic and economic motivations behind American expansionism, viewing the Philippines as a stepping stone to the Asian market.
The uneven nature of Economic Development, which primarily benefited American and certain Filipino elites.
The complexities of Filipino Nationalism, acknowledging both the resistance efforts and the difficult choices faced by those involved in Collaboration during the Japanese Occupation.

Figures like William Howard Taft and Francis Burton Harrison are often viewed through different lenses – Taft for establishing key institutions and Harrison for advancing Filipinization, yet both within the framework of colonial control. The actions of figures like Daniel Tirona, whose disruption at Tejeros had earlier implications, are also analyzed in the context of internal Filipino political dynamics that predated and continued through the American period. The lives of revolutionaries like Miguel Malvar, Teresa Magbanua, Jose Alejandrino, Paciano Rizal, Baldomero Aguinaldo, Tomas Mascardo, Nicolas Capistrano, Emiliano Riego de Dios, and General Luciano San Miguel are crucial to understanding the multifaceted and persistent nature of the Resistance Movement against both Spanish and American rule.

Understanding the American Period in the Philippines requires engaging with these different perspectives and recognizing the complex interplay of American policy, Filipino agency, and global events.

Key Takeaways:

The American Period in the Philippines began with the Spanish-American War and the controversial Treaty of Paris 1898.
The Philippine-American War was a brutal conflict resulting from the US decision to colonize the Philippines, despite the Filipino declaration of independence.
American rule was framed by the policy of Benevolent Assimilation, which aimed to introduce American institutions and values.
Significant reforms were implemented in Education in the Philippines, Public Health, and infrastructure.
The path to independence involved key legislative acts like the Jones Law and the Tydings-McDuffie Act, leading to the establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth.
Filipino leaders such as Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña played crucial roles in political development and the independence movement.
World War II in the Philippines and the Japanese Occupation severely impacted the country and created complex issues of Collaboration and Resistance Movement.
Formal independence was granted on Independence Day Philippines, July 4, 1946, following the war.
The American period left a complex legacy of political, social, and economic changes that continue to influence the Philippines.

Conclusion

The American Period in the Philippines (1898-1946) was a transformative and often turbulent era. It began with a war born out of conflicting aspirations – American expansionism versus Filipino independence – and concluded with the formal transfer of sovereignty after a devastating global conflict. The policies implemented under Benevolent Assimilation brought significant changes in areas like education, public health, and infrastructure, laying some foundations for a modern state. However, these changes came at the cost of sovereignty, a bloody war, economic dependency, and the imposition of a foreign culture and political system.

The period also witnessed the unwavering spirit of Filipino Nationalism and the persistent pursuit of self-determination, manifested through the initial armed resistance of the Philippine-American War, the political maneuvering within the evolving colonial government, and the underground Resistance Movement during the Japanese Occupation. Figures like Manuel L. Quezon, Sergio Osmeña, and countless others, including military leaders from the war against both Spain and the US such as Miguel Malvar, Teresa Magbanua, Jose Alejandrino, Paciano Rizal, Baldomero Aguinaldo, Tomas Mascardo, Nicolas Capistrano, Emiliano Riego de Dios, and General Luciano San Miguel, played vital roles in shaping the narrative of this period and the eventual realization of independence.

Understanding the American Period in the Philippines requires acknowledging its complexities, weighing its diverse impacts, and appreciating the resilience and agency of the Filipino people in navigating a period of foreign rule and striving towards their national destiny, ultimately leading to the Independence Day Philippines we now commemorate every June 12th. The legacy of this era continues to be debated, studied, and interpreted, underscoring its enduring significance in the long and rich history of the Philippines.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):

Q1: What was the main cause of the Philippine-American War? A1: The Philippine-American War was primarily caused by the conflict between the United States’ desire to annex the Philippines (acquired from Spain through the Treaty of Paris 1898) and the Filipino revolutionaries’ declaration and pursuit of full independence after overthrowing Spanish rule. The US refusal to recognize the First Philippine Republic led to the outbreak of hostilities.

Q2: What was “Benevolent Assimilation”? A2: Benevolent Assimilation was the stated policy of the United States government, articulated by President McKinley, regarding its rule over the Philippines. It claimed that the American presence was not an occupation but a mission to educate, civilize, and prepare the Filipino people for self-governance, emphasizing reforms in education, public health, and infrastructure.

Q3: What were the key pieces of U.S. legislation that impacted the Philippines during this period? A3: Two crucial pieces of legislation were the Jones Law (1916), which promised independence and created a fully elected Philippine Legislature, and the Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934), which established the Philippine Commonwealth as a ten-year transition period leading to full independence.

Q4: Who were some important Filipino leaders during the American Period? A4: Prominent political leaders included Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, who were instrumental in lobbying for independence and leading the Philippine Commonwealth. Revolutionary and military figures from the early resistance include Emilio Aguinaldo, Miguel Malvar, Teresa Magbanua, Jose Alejandrino, Paciano Rizal, Baldomero Aguinaldo, Tomas Mascardo, Nicolas Capistrano, Emiliano Riego de Dios, and General Luciano San Miguel.

Q5: How did World War II affect the American Period in the Philippines? A5: World War II in the Philippines and the subsequent Japanese Occupation severely disrupted the planned transition to independence under the Philippine Commonwealth. It led to widespread destruction, loss of life, and the complex issue of Collaboration versus joining the Resistance Movement. The war delayed the granting of independence until 1946.

Q6: When did the Philippines gain independence from the United States? A6: The United States formally granted independence to the Philippines on July 4, 1946, which was initially celebrated as Independence Day Philippines. However, the date was later changed to June 12th to commemorate the 1898 declaration of independence from Spain.

Q7: What is the significance of figures like William Howard Taft and Francis Burton Harrison? A7: William Howard Taft was the first civilian Governor-General and played a key role in establishing the early colonial administration and implementing initial reforms. The Howard Taft legacy in Philippines is linked to the foundations of the American colonial system. Francis Burton Harrison is known for his “Filipinization” policy, which increased Filipino participation in the civil service, seen as a step towards self-governance, though some argue it was a way to appease Filipino nationalists while maintaining American control.

Q8: How did the American period impact education and public health in the Philippines? A8: American rule led to significant advancements in Education in the Philippines through the establishment of a public school system and the use of English as the medium of instruction. Public Health also improved with the introduction of sanitation programs, vaccination campaigns, and the establishment of hospitals, leading to better control of infectious diseases.

Q9: What were the economic effects of American rule? A9: The American period fostered Economic Development through infrastructure projects and free trade with the US, which boosted Philippine exports. However, it also created an economic dependency on the American market and did little to address fundamental issues of land inequality.

Q10: How is the American Period viewed by historians today? A10: Modern historical interpretations of the American Period in the Philippines are often nuanced and critical. While acknowledging the contributions in education and health (Benevolent Assimilation), they also emphasize the costs of colonization, the violence of the Philippine-American War, the economic motivations of the US, and the complexities of Filipino responses, including Collaboration and the various forms of the Resistance Movement.

Sources:

Agoncillo, Teodoro A. History of the Filipino People. 8th ed. Quezon City: Garotech Publishing, 1990. (A widely cited textbook on Philippine history).
Constantino, Renato. The Philippines: A Past Revisited. Manila: Tala Publishing Services, 1975. (Offers a nationalist critique of Philippine history, including the American period).
Stanley, Peter W. A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899-1921. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974. (Academic study of the early American colonial period).
Ileto, Reynaldo C. Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840-1910. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979. (Explores popular forms of resistance and interpretation during the late Spanish and early American periods).
Linn, Brian McAllister. The Philippine War, 1899-1902. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000. (Detailed military history of the Philippine-American War).
Welch, Richard E., Jr. Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899-1902. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979. (Examines American motivations and conduct during the war).
May, Glenn Anthony. Social Engineering in the Philippines: The Commonwealth Period, 1935-1941. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980. (Focuses on the policies and challenges of the Philippine Commonwealth).
Darling, Linda. “Education in the Philippines.” Education Encyclopedia – StateUniversity.com. https://www.google.com/search?q=https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1198/Philippines-EDUCATION-SYSTEM-OVERVIEW.html (Provides an overview of the Philippine education system, including its historical development).
Library of Congress. “The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War.” https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/ (Historical resources related to the Spanish-American War and the Treaty of Paris).
National Historical Commission of the Philippines. Various historical markers and online resources related to key figures and events of the period. (e.g., information on the lives of historical figures).
Historical documents such as the Treaty of Paris 1898, Jones Law, and Tydings-McDuffie Act can be found in various historical archives and online digital libraries (e.g., Avalon Project at Yale Law School).

(Note: While direct links to every specific historical figure’s biography from the search history are not feasible for a generalized source list, the listed sources, particularly the general histories and institutional resources, provide information on many of these individuals and the context of their actions during the period.)

Category: Spanish Colonial Period (1521-1898)